Elitist Paradigm - Lecture 2

Question 1

Elitism can be defined in three ways. What are they?

Answer 1

The belief that government ought in principle, always and everywhere, to be confined to elites - conviction of the need to be in power

The belief that government in practice is confined to elites and that we may just as well accept what we are bound to have anyhow - not a normative preference but taking it for granted, accepting it for how it is

The belief that government in practice is confined to elites; that this has often been justified; but that this is wrong - recognises that government is confined to elites but politically scrutinises the notions

Normative differences between the three but form the paradigm of elitism

Question 2

What is the political modernisation historical background of classical and democratic elitism?

Answer 2

1848 - revolutionary times, novel constitutions, start of democratisation of institutions, state formation (esp. Italy and Germany)
1880 - democratisation gets momentum , emergence of new political and societal organisations and parties pursuing further changes in organising policy and society, increasing rejection of patronage, corruption and nepotism, and new political ideologies inc. socialism and fascism
1914-1919 - WW1, Russian Revolution, Versailles Treaty changed and defined relationships in Europe

Question 3

What is the societal modernisation historical background of classical and democratic elitism?

Answer 3

Industrialisation provides new experiences and feeds the ‘modern dream’ of scientific and technological advance (scientific management, Fordism, changes in labour and capitalism, new autonomy)
Urbanisation, hygienism both complex problems
Led to novel solutions involving energy, water and sanitation infrastructures (new need for engineering and medical knowledge, doctors, academically trained experts)
This means a new group of elites emerge, elites of expects. Frequent competition with the ‘old’ elite even though the classical ones still exist

Question 4

What is the most fundamental proposition of elitism?

Answer 4

In politics and organisations, there are always rulers and the ruled.
The rulers are those in occupying positions where key decisions are taken and the ruled are a much smaller group

Question 5

What are other basic ideas of elitism?

Answer 5

History of politics in history of elite domination and circulation - history of what elites in a particular moment are in place, and how they circulate, how every now and then a particular elite is being replaced by another one
Nature of society is determined by nature of its elites
Elites have cohesion because of similarities

Question 6

Why is power a key issue in elitism?

Answer 6

Due to distinct classes of ‘rulers’ and ‘ruled’, power is inevitably and permanently present in politics. Because there are all these rules and rulers, power is always present in politics

Question 7

Where is power located in elitism?

Answer 7

In actors. More specifically, those who occupy the positions with a decisive influence like the executives and governments of industry
These positions are derived from from tradition, money, education or other personal features

Question 8

What is the pluralist comment on elitism?

Answer 8

They say it is too easy. Elitist central question bluntly assumes that power is in the hands of those who occupy the particular positions and obscures the possibility that this assumption is wrong. Instead of saying who is in charge they say that elitists are assuming someone is in charge in the first place.
Elitists argue that pluralists ignore tacit acceptance of power

Question 9

What does Gaetano Mosca say about classical elitism?

Answer 9

Posited that societies are governed by a ruling minority which he termed the ruling class. It might not be the economically dominant group but rather a cohesive and self-aware elite that effectively controls political power

Question 10

What does Mosca say about power in classical elitism?

Answer 10

Mosca believes there are universal laws governing the dynamics of societies and their politics, derived from historical analysis. These laws help understand the underlying mechanisms of power struggles and political dynamics

Mosca argued that both the ruling elite and the masses prefer political formulae over direct force as a means of governance and these serve to legitimise the power of the ruling class. They can be ideologies or systems of governance

Political formulae can work because governors and governed feel a need more making sense of it than enforcing it providing a moral basis for the political order

Elites are a coherent, self-conscious group and it is not necessarily the economically dominant class

Question 11

What did Mosca say about popular sovereignty?

Answer 11

He suggested that the majority does not necessarily dominate the ruling minority.
Instead the ruling class maintains power through its coherence and effectiveness, while the majority may lack the cohesion to challenge it effectively

Question 12

What did Mosca say about the circulation of elites?

Answer 12

Mosca observed a tension between the desire of the incumbent elite to maintain power and the aspirations of new elites to ascend. This ‘circulation of elites’ is driven by societal modernisation and changes in political formulae, leading to shifts in power dynamics

With the circulation of elites there are always two forces: maintaining power within the current ruling elite and the desire to form new leaders and promote renewal

Question 13

What is a key quote from Mosca’s the ruling Class?

Answer 13

“One might say, indeed, that the wholehistory of civilized mankind comes down to a conflict betweenthe tendency ofdominant elementsto monopolize political power and transmit possession of it by inheritance,andthe tendency towarda dislocation of old forcesandan insurgence of new forces.”

Question 14

What did Pareto say about elitism?

Answer 14

Theory of elites is part of general sociology theory

Humans are driven by ‘residues’ (meaning attitudes, inclinations, values etc) and there are two types in any ruling class

Spoke on universal law and the circulation of elites

Question 15

What are the two types of residue according to Pareto?

Answer 15

Foxes - instinct for combining and doing things and acting upon the smart thinking, typically behind forces for changing society

Lions - instinct for maintaining order as the individuals ruling over you

Together they collectivise a ruling order

Question 16

Why did Pareto dispute Marxist revolution and liberal democracy?

Answer 16

Because they both assumed that the ruled ones could collectively act, develop something like collective action and collective will which is required for a revolution

Popular sovereignty requires something like collective will

Question 17

What does Robert Michel find about power dynamics?

Answer 17

He examined the distribution of power in social-democratic parties and TUs, questioning if they empower the masses or if power is concentrated in the hands of the few leaders
Research led him to a cynical conclusion finding that despite the rhetoric of democratic participation, the actual influence of the masses is limited

Question 18

What is Michel’s Iron Law of Oligarchy?

Answer 18

Suggests that regardless of their initial democratic intentions, all complex organisations tend to develop into oligarchies over time. This means that even organisations founded on principles of popular democracy eventually become dominated by a small elite. This transformation is inevitable due to the practical difficulties of direct democracy within large, complex organisations

Mechanisms through which oligarchies form include the inefficiency of direct democracy in large groups, tendency for authoritarian leadership to emerge, challenges of effective leadership by a single individual. These factors are suggested to contribute to the concentration of power in the hands of a few elites

Question 19

What does Michel say about Circulation of Elite?

Answer 19

That circulation of elites within organisations is maintained by the inability of the masses to mobilise effectively. Argues that despite occasional challenges to the existing elite, the fundamental structure of oligarchic rule remains intact due to the passive nature of the masses

Question 20

What did James Burnham say about modern elitism?

Answer 20

He criticises Marxism. Says that it is false that socialism is ‘the only alternative to capitalism’ but that a new form of exploitative society is now possible but the more likely outcome called managerial society

Shift from political to economic and managerial elites

Question 21

What was Burnham’s idea of managerial society?

Answer 21

Suggests that rather than a proletarian revolution leading to socialism, modern societies are increasingly dominated by managerial elites. These elites wield significant power and influence in economic and social spheres. They are characterised by their expertise in administration and organisation instead of ownership of the means of production

Question 22

Where did Burnhams critique of Marxism stem from?

Answer 22

His belief that empirical evidence contradicted Marx’s theories about historical inevitability and class struggle

He argued that the rise of managerial elites and increasing centralisation of power in bureaucratic structures challenged traditional Marxist narratives about capitalism and socialism

Question 23

What did C Wright Mills say about strategic hierarchies?

Answer 23

That power in society is concentrated in the strategic hierarchies which are occupied by political, economic and military elites. They derive their influence from their leadership positions in these key institutions and they might move around and share their positions

Question 24

What does the cohesion of elites depend on?

Answer 24

Density of relations (rudimentary network analysis -> horizontal mobility; ‘interlocking positions’) e.g. how many relations there are, are there differences, what places have people had influence in

A shared world view and cooperation and socialisation - if they share something they can act more coherently

Class identity - coming from the same education, families etc

Question 25

According to Mills, how do elites maintain position?

Answer 25

Controlling capitalist systems and promoting a permanent ‘war economy’ which aligns state resources with economic interests

Manipulate societal order through mass media

Question 26

According to Mills, what is the role of free intellectuals?

Answer 26

Mills highlights the scarcity of ‘free intellectuals’ who critically scrutinise power structures and advocate for broader societal interests. He suggests that the absence of these voices enables other elite groups to consolidate and extend their power because there are fewer challenges to their authority

Question 27

What are the key premises of democratic elitism?

Answer 27

Democratic elitism is an attempt to understand how elites have power, how the system is still democratic and how democracy does not work.

Individual preferences as units of analysis - individual preferences shape collective decision making processes and how leaders, in turn, influence the formation of these preferences. Recognises that individual preferences are often influenced by factors like bounded rationality, limited information and external influences

Formation of individual preference based on bounded rationality, limited information and sensitive to outside influence - bounded rationality meaning people can be rational only in the realm of their view of the world, limited information meaning we never have complete information and influences

Electorate cannot control elected officials

Democracy should be understood as a process, focussing on nature, conduct and selection of political elites. These things determine how democratic or not the system is. Can think about this process of selection of political elites

Equilibrium between political authority, political leadership, efficient administration, accountability with limited popular influence - democratic elitism suggests a balance must be maintained between political authority, leadership, efficient administration, and accountability for maintaining democratic legitimacy and stability

Question 28

What are some key themes in Weber’s work?

Answer 28

Ideal types as a basis for comparing and understanding
Protestantism and capitalism - modernity and working ethics
Rationalisation - things becoming more calculable, formalisable, controllable in his time as this is what science and technological advance can do, drawbacks in terms of disenchantment
Bureaucracy - organisational form which is omnipresent in modernity as a system characterised by task-efficiency based on expertise and coordination and hierarchy. Business-like, fair, efficient, resistant to nepotism, arbitrariness, may lead to disenchantment, loss of meaning, de-individualisation

Question 29

What is Weber’s view on democratic elitism?

Answer 29

State holds a monopoly on authoritative rule making within a given territory. State has exclusive power to create and enforce laws, regulations and policies governing society. Backed by legitimacy to use violence in a given territory
In the state, elite domination in the state apparatuses is inevitable
Theory aims to reconcile this reality with democratic principles - acknowledges that state domination requires a minimum of voluntary compliance from the populace, acceptance of state commands as valid norms, belief in legitimacy of the form of domination. For the state to govern effectively, citizens must be accepting
Weber advocated for rational domination as preferred legitimate authority of the state instead of traditional or charismatic which rely on inherited or personal qualities. Rational is grounded in reason and logic, rationally justified positions to achieve progress

Question 30

What are characteristics of an ideal-typical bureaucracy?

Answer 30

Organisational work is continuous and follows rules to make things efficient and act on expertise
Functional division of tasks and competences
Hierarchical organisation form with top-down control
Technical norms, routines which demand training
Officials do not own means of production or administration
Officials cannot control their office
Written record of administration
An administrative staff

Question 31

How do US and NL Organisational forms differ?

Answer 31

US: non-political official, efficiency oriented rather than interested
NL: part of the executive, leave politics to politicians

Question 32

What is Weber’s competitive elitist democracy?

Answer 32

Democracy must help maintain conditions for some form of legitimate centralised state government just like bureaucracy

Question 33

What does Weber say about Popular will?

Answer 33

that popular will is the product, not the motive power for the political process
challenges the notion that popular will is the primary driving force behind the political process
instead he argues that the popular will is shaped by political leaders who engage in debates, negotiations and decision making as the political landscape and interactions among leaders play a crucial role in shaping public opinion and influencing government policies
The people is merely the producer of government

Question 34

According to Weber, what three functions does parliament have?

Answer 34

Maintain a degree of openness: debate novel ideas and interests
Testing ground for persuasive leaders, able to mobilise and offer a programme
Space for negotiating entrenched positions, separate from bureaucratic logic

Question 35

What does Weber have to say about mass franchise?

Answer 35

The extension of the franchise to the masses is considered a positive development but Weber acknowledges the risks associated with it
With a mass franchise, parliament may no longer be a venue for reasoned deliberation as anyone can be a member of parliament
This shift underscores the importance of political parties in shaping public opinion and socialising citizens into rational political actors
Political parties become crucial

Question 36

But what about political parties? (Weber)

Answer 36

They are mass organisations that need direction because they otherwise lead to oligarchy and therefore adopt central decision making, loyalty and discipline.

Question 37

What does Weber say about maintaining power?

Answer 37

Leadership becomes central; democracy is understood as the way to ensure effective leadership through competition among political leaders and parties. Emphasises the importance of maintaining a balance of power and countervailing forces in society to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a few elites

Question 38

What was Schumpeter’s view on entrepreneurship?

Answer 38

Held a strong belief in the importance of entrepreneurship in the economy. Viewed entrepreneurs as individuals who recognise and seize opportunities, driving innovation and economic development
In that view, entrepreneurship is a fundamental human capacity that fuels economic growth

Question 39

What does Schumpeter say about innovation?

Answer 39

Said it was a critical factor in economic dynamism. Argued that economic progress is propelled by innovations introduced by entrepreneurs. Unlike traditional economic theories focussed on supply and demand, Schumpeter emphasised the transformative role of innovation in shaping economic outcomes

Question 40

What does Schumpeter say about corporations?

Answer 40

Schumpeter recognized the role of corporations in fostering innovation through research and development activities. He believed that corporations, with their access to resources and capital, play a crucial role in driving technological advancements and economic growth. This emphasis on corporate innovation contributed to Schumpeter’s understanding of economic dynamics.

Question 41

What is Schumpeter’s concept of ‘creative destruction’?

Answer 41

He argued that economic progress involves the continual destruction of old industries and the creation of new ones. This process, driven by innovation and entrepreneurship, leads to the emergence of new technologies, products, and industries, while rendering existing ones obsolete.

Question 42

What is Schumpeter’s democratic elitist perspective?

Answer 42

Emphasized the role of political elites in shaping and influencing democratic processes. Schumpeter’s democratic elitism acknowledges the influence of elites in democratic governance while highlighting the importance of competition and leadership within political systems.

Question 43

What does liberal democratic theory assume?

Answer 43

A common will of the people, exactly coinciding with the common good

People vote for assembly representatives and the assembly elects executives

Representatives are experts who just carry out common will

Question 44

Why is the idea of common will often considered empirically untenable?

Answer 44

Idiocy of the electorate - individuals may not always make rational decisions when it comes to politics. Bounded rationality suggests that people may lack the cognitive capacity or information necessary to make fully informed decisions. This can lead to suboptimal choices or uninformed voting behavior.

Madness of the crowd - There’s a psychological aspect to collective decision-making, where individuals in a group may be influenced by emotions, peer pressure, or charismatic leaders. This phenomenon suggests that group dynamics can sometimes override individual rationality, leading to irrational or impulsive decisions.

Lack of feedback mechanisms - Unlike consumer choices where feedback mechanisms exist (e.g., product reviews, returns), voters often do not experience immediate consequences of their political choices. This lack of feedback can make it difficult for voters to evaluate the efficacy of their decisions and adjust their preferences accordingly

Diversity of individual preferences - People have diverse preferences and priorities, making it challenging to establish a single, endorsed common will. Even if individuals have primary preferences, they also have secondary and tertiary ones, further complicating the formation of a unified will - Mackie!

Question 45

What is Mackie’s critique of this?

Answer 45

Democracy should be viewed more as a method rather than a manifestation of a common will. Democracy, in this view, is about competition between leaders who articulate their policies and ideas to attract voter support. This competition among leaders becomes the primary influence that the population has on politics. Instead of assuming a unified will, democracy serves as a mechanism for navigating and reconciling the diverse preferences and interests within a society.

Question 46

What are additional empirical flaws?

Answer 46

Lack of control over representatives - The electorate often lacks direct control over their representatives’ actions once they are elected. Instead of directly dictating their representatives’ votes or decisions, voters typically choose a leader whom they perceive as better than the alternative. But Mackie says while voters may not directly control their representatives’ actions, there is still a mechanism of influence at play. Anticipation of the potential consequences of deviating from voters’ preferences serves as a powerful deterrent for representatives. If representatives anticipate negative repercussions from voters for their actions, they are more likely to align with voters’ preferences to maintain support.

Influence of Party Leaders and Special Interest - These actors may manipulate public opinion through various means, such as media influence, campaign funding, or lobbying efforts. Mackie acknowledges that despite the influence of party leaders and special interests, there may still be elements of a genuine common will within society

Question 47

What is democracy as method?

Answer 47

People merely have to choose leaders. Leaders may remain implicit in the programme yet, competition between leaders makes them tease out each others’ ideas and then people, as bounded rationals, can select on a more limited set of considerations e.g. iconic issues, preferences of societal organisation

Question 48

What does Eckersley claim for the democratic/institutional debate?

Answer 48

Eckersley argues that liberal democracy, which operates based on the principles of democratic elitism, lacks the necessary conditions for achieving sustainability. Democratic elitism posits that a small group of elites, typically elected officials or experts, make decisions on behalf of the larger population. However, Eckersley suggests that sustainable development requires a form of post-liberal democracy, rather than an outright rejection of liberal democratic principles.

Eckersley proposes a form of democracy that is compatible with sustainable development. This proposed model of democracy would support the transition to sustainable societies by facilitating bottom-up grassroots change. Liberal democracy tends to prioritize individual freedoms and market mechanisms, which may not align with the collective action and regulation needed for sustainability.

Question 49

Why does liberal democracy lack conditions for sustainability?

Answer 49

Denial of collective will formation - individual wills emphasised which inhibits the formation of a collective will necessary for societal change, particularly in addressing sustainability challenges

Limitations of bureaucratic efficiency - emphasis on this can lead to a decomposition of complex sustainability problems into simpler, isolated issues

Reduction of citizens to passive role - denies citizens the opportunity to act as change agents and limit the potential for grassroots movements and civil society to drive sustainable development initiatives