Elites, groups, government and the shaping of social change - Lecture 4

Question 1

Why is there a debate between pluralism and elitism?

Answer 1

Because people have different assumptions

Question 2

What is pluralism?

Answer 2

It is a move away from focus on institutions to actual behaviour of groups.
The unit of analysis is a plural set of groups with contestation and negotiation with each other and the state
There are horizontal distinctions
Groups in society responding to particular issues
There are diverse interests.
Focus on power specifically potential power and actual power. Potential power is the variety of sources, differences in access. Actual power is what actors manage to make from potential power while competing with others
To study who has power means looking at the processes between groups and states and who has used resources of power best

Question 3

What is elitism?

Answer 3

Also moves away from focus on institutions to focus on the behaviour of elites
Analyses how elites shape the outcome of politics
Vertical distinction between rulers and ruled
Idea that dominant ideology can bring progress and deserves consent to improve the position.
Power is located in actors, in the rules and to understand it need to understand the circulation and cohesion of elites in societies

Question 4

What is the first risk of elitism and pluralism?

Answer 4

Pluralist politics yield more light

Elites were increasingly accepted around 1900 to resolve complex problems (important place for experts in companies and government, development of management) Democratic elitists promoted this and were concerned about too much popular influence and too little progression which would kill potential for progress through modernisation and rationalisation so they were careful about flawed depictions of sovereignty

Pluralists reject the idea of common interests and ideas as prime movers. Pluralists feed the worst fears of democratic elitists. Interests are seen to result from group actions. Risk perception that pluralist politics might spoil the progress of the party

Question 5

What is the second risk of elitism and pluralism?

Answer 5

Elite plans yield limited light

Societal modernisation meant there were more novel elites

On the one hand, there is light but only to see the path and plans proposed by the leader therefore obscuring or cutting off others.

On the other hand, other lights might be ignored because the experts have the privileged position

Idea that plans claim to enlighten thinking but they only do so in a limited way

After 1914-45 there was reluctance against dominant ideology and fear of authoritarian tendencies and elites determining outcomes fuelled this risk

Question 6

What is behind the risks?

Answer 6

James Scott’s High Modernism

Question 7

What is Scott’s High Modernism?

Answer 7

The aspiration to employ the benefits of science and technology to acquire progress in all realms of human life.

A faith shared by a wide set of ideologies adhered to typically by progressives who came to power with the promise to change society

The aspiration driving first modernity (of Beck) in a way.

All those believing we could have better society shared the sets of ideologies. Provided hope after 4 disastrous decades.

Aspiration since C17 driving first modernity. It was fully expressed after the state developed mature machinery around 1900

Question 8

What is Scott’s Radical Authority of High Modernism?

Answer 8

This is the faith in progress through controlling the nature of society.
Idea that if we need progress to control society then those who have the knowledge are fit to rule justifying the position of elites and well-educated people. Others need to be educated and their informal, local, tacit knowledge was increasingly rejected
It therefore devalued politics because it allowed for rational plans and there was more favour on actual knowledge. Goes against pluralism

Question 9

How does Scott describe elites?

Answer 9

As the ‘main carriers and exponents were the avant-garde among engineers, planners, technocrats, high-level administrators, architects, scientists, and visionaries’

‘typically progressives who have come to power with a comprehensive critique of existing society and have wanted to use that power to bring about enormous changes… [deploying] the armory of holistic social engineering’

Question 10

According to Scott, what did the elites promise?

Answer 10

Promise of experts to deal with urgent complex problem and replace nepotism, arbitrariness, etc by rational, fair governance.

They did create a brave new world - ‘it would have been difficult not to be a modernist at the end of the 19th century in the West’

All enthusiasm was towards modernity

Question 11

In what ways does Scott draw awareness to the first risk in this Zeitgeist of enthusiasm for modernity?

Answer 11

Said that ‘high modernism thus tends to devalue or banish politics’ and ‘political interests can only frustrate the social solutions devised by specialists with scientific tools adequate to their analysis’

Scott was highly aware of the risk and wanted to warn against them in understanding where this comes from. It isn’t just tension there is good too.

Question 12

In what way does Scott draw awareness to the second risk?

Answer 12

Radical authority of high modernism in the context of strong state leads to large projects.
Elite plans yield limited light and they may overrun local realities.
Large amounts of money needed, people must be dislocated/change lifestyles, coordination of many state agencies leads to a strong government over society and market. Only the leaders’ path is lightened
Thinking is oriented on the future: the certainty of better future justifies many short term sacrifices: Imposing means-end reasoning, cost benefit etc. Other things obscured
Knowledge, technology, to control nature and society means that local knowledge and therefore other light is suppressed and ignored

Question 13

What fuelled the fear that this can materialise and lead to disasters?

Answer 13

There were two things which could happen.

Discovery of society and nature as objects which the state could describe and manage (which was initially limited by state capacity)

Around 1900 ‘tragic episode in state development’ yielding 3 conditions
- Administrative ordering of society and nature means that there is ‘Scientific reasoning, and knowledge to replace habits, practices and structures’ and traditional knowledge - condition of authoritarianism?
- State developed strong administrative capacity, employing knowledge and technique, tension for civil society
- Weakened civil society (<consent and administrative ordering)

Question 14

What is meant by the idea of the Scylla and the Charybdis?

Answer 14

The Charybdis represents pluralism in that too many ideas and interests limits progress
Scylla is authoritarianism which might occur with the expert knowledge

Have to navigate between them and arrive somewhere safely

Question 15

Historical Example 1 USSR: What were Lenin’s views on societal modernisation?

Answer 15

1907 Theory of the Agrarian Question
Lenin adhered to high modernism and was impressed by taylorism, fordism and modernity
He found electrification enlightening both physically and symbolically as a developmental model
He favoured industrialisation of agriculture by drawing upon knowledge, experience from Germany, Austria. Promoted abolishing of family farms and was away that this requires a state against ‘idiocy of rural life’

Question 16

What is Lenin’s view on the party and the people?

Answer 16

1903: typical elitist metaphors yielded - school classes with agitators having the required scientific knowledge, teaching the masses and implementing the right way of thinking, army in which the party cadres is the vanguard exploring the way and giving direction to discipline the masses

1917 had a more egalitarian tone but maintained that industrialisation required discipline and tough measures were needed

Question 17

What was Rosa Luxemburg’s view to contradict Lenin’s elitist view?

Answer 17

She was a member of the revolutionary vanguard but against Lenin

She argued that the masses are autonomous and creative, not just something which can be led. More leverage needs to be given to the potential of the masses. Revolution is a living organism

Question 18

What was Aleksandra Kollontay’s view against Lenin’s elitism?

Answer 18

She shared Luxemburg’s views

Led the unions’ revolt who were acting up against government and strongly argued for the positioning of women arguing that there was a separate elite who were more in charge than justified

Question 19

How did Collectivisation of agriculture change under Stalin in 1920?

Answer 19

It started under Lenin but took off under Stalin
Stalin was a very scientifically informed person but was modernist too. Views were more modern than socialist.
He had a focal vision of the new human as a combination of the bolshevist specialist, engineers and functionaries and this is something which he shared with the US. Idea of breeding these kinds of people
This led to collectivisation of agriculture

Question 20

How did the collectivisation of agriculture see the demise of family farming?

Answer 20

The existing order was destroyed
Traditional family farms became rationally designed state farms call sovchozes or collective farms called kolchozes
Involved central planning by specialists and it was enforced where necessary, If people didn’t collaborate they would be forced

Question 21

How did this collectivisation of agriculture lead to discontent and protest?

Answer 21

Increasing myth of the socialist farmer especially after Stalin died, instead it was novel serfdom and slavery. Bad prizes, distribution of land, agricultural techniques and monoculture

The system did not work. Prices were too inflated and unaffordable, food was scarce, direct confrontation and interference with daily life. Led to low productivity, efficiency, soil depletion and food scarcity.
Eventual result in malfunctioning food economy and popular discontent.
Discontent and protest in turn led to a well functioning communism which further prevented popular discontent

Protests as the counterproductive effect of the modernisation process.

Question 22

How does the collectivisation of agriculture highlight the risks of pluralism and elitism?

Answer 22

The novel elite imposed its will with rural protest oppressed and counter voices like Luxemburg and Kollontay were ingored meaning the first risk didn’t materialise. Global knowledge was lost and became a Pyrrhus victory by the use of local knowledge ecologically and economically

3 conditions of state development - administrative ordering, state capacity, weak civil society - meant that the second risk of autocracy did materialise

Question 23

What about in less extreme situations? Does the same happen?

Answer 23

Contemporary European, American societies show wide sense of discontent with elite (plans)

Without groups there is no pressure for social change or risk of authoritarian turn.
Without circulation of elite there is no proper direction and elaboration of change
With groups and elites there is no change
Therefore groups and the state can produce social change and strengthen democracy too

Question 24

How can we see Risk 2 in 1813 with King William I?

Answer 24

In 1813 there was a sort of passive culture and King William returned
There was authoritarian rule, promoted societal modernisation with infrastructure, gas lighting etc. This got politicised and there were protests against things like spending on industrialisation.
There are the three conditions for risk 2 but where did the resistance come from? The conditions for the second risk are only partly met

Question 25

What was the background of Making Amsterdam Clean Again in 1900?

Answer 25

Challenges of industrialisation and associated changes and government spending on this. There was inequality, poverty, bad housing and hygiene which all became captured in the social question making it a key issue in politics at the time. People starting to stand up because of the idea of conditions for the second risk

Question 26

How can we see more of Risk 1 here than Risk 2? (In modernisation and clean amsterdam)

Answer 26

Politicisation continued against the background of revolt in Europe. There were companies against societal modernisation and favouring political modernisation.
Around 1848, people in the political elite started to panic and there were revolutions as concerns for political modernisation not met. So effort made to meet these concerns and political modernisation
This led to a slow down of societal modernisation. National taxes were abolished due to resistance and there was reduced national government expenditures
Running government was harder due to collaboration between all groups in government
Shows that the pluralist risk seems stronger than the elitist risk. Both working against modernisation.
Political modernisation also led to reduced city power against national projects

Question 27

What development helped maintain the influence of civil society?

Answer 27

There were emerging young professionals
1851 first World exhibition at London’s Crystal Palace to show what people around the world have achieved in terms of industrialising, ideas. Celebrating science, technology and progress and promotes international ‘crystal palace movement’. It was a major impulse for high modernism
Introduction of more innovations and inventions leading to more and more. Enthusiasm for industrialisation and modernisation changing civil society social life.
Together with facilitating political modernisation measures, triggers more vivid civil society with more initiative to develop the city and country

Question 28

How is Sarphati an example of this?

Answer 28

Idea of taking high modernism back home.
1813-66 as a city doctor and hygienist who, on return from Crystal palace, was enthusiastic to alleviate people from poor conditions, poverty and bad housing. Worked with other liberals and progressives to promote this (liberal Minister Heemskerk, Professor Salomon Bleekrode, Thorbecke)
Variety of projects including the palace for Popular Diligence, sanitation and hygienist housing
He created public toilets around the city but lots of them were destroyed because he was seen as a representative of the elite which previously neglected the people, linking to authoritarian risk felt through progress and knowledge of experts
Experimented with more hygienist housing and showed it could be done but it wasn’t affordable to the people
(See the slides for more information on sanitation)
Idea that pluralism (Charybdis) keeps people away from elitism (Scylla). Risk 1 keeps people away from Risk 2

Question 29

What was the context for the novel home construction from Sarphati?

Answer 29

Slums, bad housing situation deteriorated due to influx of workers
Reports by hygienists, including the Engineering Society, 1854 noticing this was happening and the bad situation
This sent a shockwave through some circles but not the municipal council because this was dominated by Conservative Liberals who left the issue to the private sector
Sarphati used this support to advocate fro better housing but was rejected in 1860
There was revolution construction but it was so quick the homes were bad quality and exposed labourers to bad conditions
Meant there were more civil society initiatives

Question 30

How did the first plan for modern city planning in De Pijp develop?

Answer 30

Young engineers in government.
Until 1866 Amsterdam said it would not build outside city walls.
Expert of engineering proposed new area of De Pijp following Sarphati’s ideas.
Plans rejected by the city council as believed too large and costly, required land re-allocation and expropriation leading to societal opposition.
Parts of the plan were realised by private parties like the Walloon Church, Gerard Heineken
Societal opposition because of re-allocation of lands and expropriation as underlying reasons. Land now only used for home construction

Question 31

What triggered protest about the home construction issue?

Answer 31

High costs, people dislocated, lands reallocated by state agencies
Thinking oriented on future: the certainty of a better future justifies many short term sacrifices . Imposing means end reasoning, const benefit etc
Knowledge, technology to control nature and society

The municipal council was receptive to pressure highlighting risk 1. Only some of the conditions for risk 2 were met. There was administrate ordering of society and nature and partly strong administrative capacity. But civil society was strong to resistance limiting the authoritarian risk

Question 32

What was the Kalff Plan?

Answer 32

A decade later the Kalff plan was adopted by Council which had learnt from previous experiences and changed in composition.
Other conditions like the bourgeoisie felt challenged by the Marxist movement, confessional party formation. Lifestyles appeared difficult to design at the drawing board (rents were too high for labourers, there were also now students and artists as pioneers of the new era’s lifestyles)

New organised or unorganised potential groups largely pre-empted risk 2. But plans partly failed due to blind spots where other lights were ignored. Like informal knowledge on parts of peoples lives. People realised they had to do something because this was ignored which is why a.rule was prevented

Question 33

What was the next plan which was elite but including additional light?

Answer 33

1894 Construction Society De Jordaan was initiated by Helena Mercier after a tour with Aletta Jacobs in collaboration with other new professionals and incorporating dwelling supervisors.
Initiators became advisers to new national legislation in 1901.
New blocks of homes were built in Jordaan at low price and very hygienic
It worked because they had knowledge about the conditions and positions of lower classes, hygienism, construction, legal and other specialised knowledge
Rudimentary learning structure on lifeworld knowledge
New social groups starting to shape the evolving state and political modernisation. Elites doing things but not just thinking about themselves

Question 34

What does the home construction say about navigating the Scylla and Charybdis?

Answer 34

There was high modernist faith strongly present after 1885
Originally suffered from risk one with civil society initiatives meaning elite plans were rejected or failed
With increase in state capacity risk one was increasingly pre-empted
On the conditions of authoritarianism there was no civil society, but new potential groups remained absent this period. Politicisation pre-empted strong expression of risk two
Yet in a light version risk two expressed itself with blind spots due to ignored other light
Initiatives from civil society helped overcome this and inform early welfare state legislation

Question 35

Why are the outcomes different in Amsterdam and USSR despite a similar issue?

Answer 35

Amsterdam was not a passive civil society but very vivid and created in ways anticipated by pluralism. Groups developed around issues to end authoritarianism but this didn’t happen so much in Russia.

Question 36

So what is the dilemma in navigating climate change politics?

Answer 36

There is this idea that expert groups and climate activists have to act now because of the high urgency situation both ecologically and economically
There is strong contestation by discontent citizens of solutions currently being discussed
A delay in response to contesting groups will increase the time pressure and urgency later which can further fuel discontent
However, swift measures now will fuel discontent now.
Need a way out?

Question 37

What are the disputes surrounding climate change politics?

Answer 37

Generic issue on climate change policies because of spending so much money and changing lifestyles

Mobility and shifting to electric vehicles proposition is too expensive for ordinary people, what about weather conditions, why are there so many subsidies

Energy neutral homes are too expensive for ordinary people, will we be able to shower, macro-economically unattractive and requires billions of collective money

Question 38

What groups could help resolve these issues?

Answer 38

Comparison to historical cases. What groups should be able to design or negotiate or elaborate solutions? Bearers of lifeworld perspective? Climate activists? Specialist technicians? Discontent groups?