Effects of Neurotransmitters, Neuromodulators, & Neurohormones:

Question 1

Acetylcholine (ACh): Nicotinic receptors

Answer 1

 Ionotropic
 plasticity, attention, mood, learning, memory, neuromuscular junction, para/sympathetic NS, regulating inflammation

Question 2

Acetylcholine (ACh): Muscarinic receptors

Answer 2

 metabotropic
 arousal, mood, REM sleep, neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic NS

Question 3

Acetylcholine (ACh) Issues

Answer 3

 Deficiency =
Myasthenia gravis (autoimmune disease attacks ACh receptors)
Causes muscle weakness since signaling is shut down at neuromuscular junction
Dementia (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease)
Some meds for dementia increase ACh to improve/speed up cognition

Question 4

Dopamine (DA) Role

Answer 4

 Reward, pleasure, motivation, arousal, cognitive function
 Basal ganglia circuits – movement control
 Hormone: ↓ Digestion, inflammation
 Precursor to norepinephrine

Question 5

Dopamine (DA) Issues

Answer 5

 ↓ = ADHD, depression, movement disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s)
 ↑ = Schizophrenia, psychosis, addiction (from euphoria)
 ↑ may help with PTSD therapy

Question 6

Norepinephrine (NE)
(=noradrenaline) Role

Answer 6

 alertness, vigilance & arousal, speeds reaction time
 Hormone: stress response
 Precursor to epinephrine (=adrenaline)

Question 7

Norepinephrine (NE)
(=noradrenaline) Issues

Answer 7

 ↓ = ADHD, depression, low blood pressure
 ↓ might have a role in Alzheimer’s disease, TBI/concussion (both associated with loss of NE cells)

Question 8

Serotonin (5-HT) Role

Answer 8

 Mood, cognition, reward, learning/memory, appetite
 Hormone: digestion, vomiting, vasoconstriction, bladder control, ejaculation latency
 Precursor to melatonin

Question 9

Serotonin (5-HT) Issues

Answer 9

 ↓ = Mood disorders (e.g., depression/anxiety), fibromyalgia, PMS & hormone dysfunction, irritable bowel, GI issues, obesity
 ↑ = Serotonin syndrome

Question 10

Histamine (H) Role

Answer 10

 Modulates other NTs  Arousal, learning/memory, stabilize wakefulness, energy balance
 Hormone: inflammatory response

Question 11

Histamine (H) Issues

Answer 11

 ↓ = Schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, immune system disorders  ↑ = allergies

Question 12

Orexin/Hypocretin Role

Answer 12

 Stabilizes arousal, wakefulness
 Reward, motivation: ↑ = appetite, sex; modulates energy

Question 13

Orexin/Hypocretin Issue

Answer 13

 ↓ = Narcolepsy, cataplexy
 Possible role in sleep paralysis

Question 14

Glutamate (GLU) Role

Answer 14

 Main excitatory NT
 Ionotropic receptors: AMPA & Kainate (↑Na/K permeability); NMDA (↑Ca permeability)
 Metabotropic receptors
 Synaptic plasticity, learning/memory, arousal

Question 15

Glutamate (GLU) Issue

Answer 15

 ↓ = Schizophrenia (NMDA receptor)
 ↑ = Excitotoxicity (↑Ca influx in stroke, trauma), seizures

Question 16

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) Role

Answer 16

 Main inhibitory NT
 Ionotropic receptors: use Cl- in to hyperpolarize  Metabotropic receptors: use K+ out to hyperpolarize
 ↓ fear, anxiety
 ↑ sleep, insulin release
 Regulate circadian rhythms in SCN
 Maybe role in drug tolerance

Question 17

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) Issues

Answer 17

 ↓ = Anxiety/depression, sleep disorders (e.g., insomnia), maybe schizophrenia
 Alcohol & benzodiazepines ↑ GABA to produce sedation
 Role in jet lag (master clock in SCN uses GABA to regulate melatonin production)

Question 18

Galanin Role

Answer 18

 Inhibitory NT in brain, spinal cord, gut
 Role not determined. Maybe: : nociception (pain sensation), waking/sleep regulation, cognition, feeding, regulation of mood & blood pressure

Question 19

Galanin Issues

Answer 19

 Linked to Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, depression, eating disorders, cancer, addiction
 ↑ = neuroprotective, may promote neurogenesis

Question 20

Melatonin Role

Answer 20

 Induces sleep

Question 21

Melatonin Issues

Answer 21

 ↓ = Sleep disorders (e.g., insomnia)