Effects Flashcards
1
Q
Bandwagon effect (1920s)
A
Origin unknown (popular in social psychology and behavioural sciences)
- Refers to the tendency of people to follow what is popular or shared by the majority. This behaviour stems from the search for social belonging and approval.
- Example: Adopting a new fashion trend just because it is followed by the majority.
2
Q
Hawthorne Effect (1920s-30s)
A
Elton Mayo
- Refers to the phenomenon whereby people improve their behaviour or performance when they know they are being watched. This effect was discovered during studies of worker productivity.
- Example: Workers working faster under supervision.
3
Q
Control illusion effect (1970s)
A
Ellen Langer
- Indicates the tendency to overestimate one’s control over external events, even when they are governed by chance. This effect leads to irrational decisions in many situations.
- Example: Believing one can influence a dice throw by choosing how to throw.
4
Q
The Effect of False Consent (1977)
A
Lee Ross
- Indicates the tendency to overestimate how much one’s opinions or behaviour is shared by others. This effect reinforces the perceived normality of one’s own ideas.
- Example: Thinking that everyone shares a specific political preference, when this is not the case.
5
Q
Mozart Effect (1993)
A
Gordon Shaw and Frances Rauscher
- The effect suggests that listening to classical music, particularly Mozart, can temporarily improve cognitive abilities and spatial reasoning.
- Example: Students listen to Mozart before a geometry exam and improve their results.
6
Q
Faded effect (1970s)
A
Elizabeth Loftus
- Describes how misinformation received after an event can alter the memory of the event. It is one of the main factors influencing the formation of false memories.
- Example: Changing the memory of an accident after hearing inaccurate versions of the facts.
7
Q
The Anchor Effect (1974)
A
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
- Describes the influence of an initial value (anchor) on decision-making or subsequent estimates. Although the anchor is arbitrary, it distorts judgement.
- Example: Considering a car cheap only because the initial price was much higher.
8
Q
Superstar effect (1980s)
A
Sherwin Rosen
- Indicates how highly talented or charismatic individuals monopolise the attention and resources of a market, even if the differences with others are minimal.
- Example: A singer who dominates the music charts, overshadowing similarly talented artists.
9
Q
Reciprocity effect (1960s)
A
Alvin Gouldner
- Describes the tendency to reciprocate favours, gestures or gifts received. This social principle is often exploited in marketing and persuasion.
- Example: Feeling obliged to make a purchase after receiving a free sample.
10
Q
Self-determination effect (1980s)
A
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan
- Describes how intrinsic motivation, derived from self-interest and internal satisfaction, produces better results than extrinsic motivation based on external rewards.
- Example: Studying a subject for passion and not to get a grade.
11
Q
Tent pole effect (date unknown)
A
Origin unknown
- Describes the phenomenon whereby a single prominent, anomalous feature or event distorts the entire perception of a situation or context.
- Example: A small error in a presentation that is perceived as representative of the entire work.
12
Q
Iceberg effect (1950s)
A
Uncertain origin
- Refers to the phenomenon whereby one tends to consider only the visible aspects of a situation, ignoring the hidden or underlying ones. The effect is often used as a metaphor for analysing complex problems.
- Example: In an argument between colleagues, one only notices the superficial conflict without investigating the root causes.
13
Q
Lake Wobegon effect (1980s)
A
David G. Myers
- Describes the tendency of people to consider themselves above average in many areas, even when this is not true. This effect occurs frequently in self-evaluation.
- Example: Considering oneself a better driver than most others.
14
Q
Overconfidence Effect (1960s)
A
Daniel Kahneman (attributed)
- Refers to the tendency to overestimate one’s knowledge or abilities in a given area, even when one’s skills are limited. This effect often leads to wrong decisions.
- Example: Being sure you know all the answers before starting a quiz but getting many of them wrong.
15
Q
Heuristics of Availability (1973)
A
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
- People tend to judge the likelihood of an event by the ease with which similar examples are remembered. Recent or vivid events disproportionately influence judgement.
- Example: Believing an earthquake is imminent after watching a documentary about natural disasters.
16
Q
Motivated forgetting effect (1980s)
A
Sigmund Freud (initially attributed, later studied in cognitive psychology)
- Indicates the tendency to unconsciously forget unpleasant experiences or information. This mechanism may serve as a defence strategy to reduce emotional stress.
- Example: Not remembering details of a particularly painful discussion.
17
Q
Extremisation effect (1960s)
A
Origin attributed to group studies (e.g. Serge Moscovici)
- Describes how group discussion leads members to more extreme positions than the initial individual ones. This phenomenon often occurs in political debates.
- Example: A group with moderate ideas that, upon discussion, becomes radically for or against an issue.
18
Q
Ringelmann effect (early 20th century)
A
Maximilien Ringelmann
- Describes how individual efficiency decreases as the size of a group increases. This occurs because individuals rely on the efforts of others.
- Example: In a group project, some participants work less, expecting others to carry out the task.
19
Q
Barnum Effect (1948)
A
Bertram Forer
- Describes the tendency of people to recognise themselves in vague and generic descriptions, believing them to be unique and personalised. This effect is often used in horoscopes.
- Example: Believing that a generic horoscope perfectly reflects one’s personality.
20
Q
Illusory Self-Esteem Effect (1980s)
A
David Dunning
- Indicates how people tend to overestimate their competence and ability, often to maintain a positive self- perception.
- Example: A mediocre employee who believes he or she is indispensable to the company.
21
Q
False uniqueness effect (1980s)
A
David Marks
- Indicates the tendency to regard one’s opinions, values or abilities as more unique or special than they really are. The effect influences the perception of oneself and others.
- Example: Believing one is one of the few who cares about the environment, even though many share the same value.
22
Q
Gregarious effect (1930s)
A
Origin unknown
- Describes the propensity to imitate group behaviour in order to conform and avoid social exclusion. Personal decisions can also be influenced by the group.
- Example: Supporting a sports team because most friends do.
23
Q
Repetition Effect (1970s)
A
Lynn Hasher and David Goldstein
- The effect describes how repeated information, even if false, is perceived as true. The familiarity generated by repetition increases the credibility of the information.
- Example: Believing that a piece of misinformation is true after hearing it many times.
24
Q
Status Quo Effect (1980s)
A
William Samuelson and Richard Zeckhauser
- Indicates the tendency to prefer things to remain as they are, avoiding changes even when these could be for the better.
- Example: Continuing to use old software despite a more efficient alternative.
25
Spotlight effect (2000s)
Thomas Gilovich and Kenneth Savitsky
* Represents the tendency to overestimate how much attention others pay to one's mistakes, behaviour or appearances. This effect amplifies social anxiety.
* Example: Thinking that everyone noticed a stain on one's clothes at an event.
26
Zeigarnik Effect (1920)
Zeigarnik Bluma
* This effect shows how people remember interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The interruption creates a psychological tension that prompts people to process the task more, which improves memory.
* Example: Remembering an unfinished call more than one already made.
27
Egocentric effect (1980s)
Thomas Gilovich
* Refers to the tendency to regard oneself as the centre of others' attention, overestimating the impact of one's actions on others.
* Example: Thinking that everyone remembers a mistake made during a meeting, while few noticed it.
28
The Expectancy Effect (1960s)
Robert Rosenthal
* Describes how one person's expectations can influence another's performance, even unconsciously. This effect is similar to Pygmalion but applies to broader contexts.
* Example: A manager who expects good results from an employee and unconsciously encourages him to achieve them.
29
Impostor Effect (1970s)
Pauline Clance and Suzanne Imes
* Describes the phenomenon whereby successful people feel unworthy of their achievements, fearing being 'exposed' as incompetent. It is common in professional and academic circles.
* Example: A doctor who despite his expertise fears that he does not deserve the role.
30
Halo Effect (1920)
Edward L. Thorndike
* The effect describes how a single positive (or negative) characteristic influences the overall judgement of a person or object. For example, physical appearance may influence the perception of competence.
* Example: Considering a person more competent just because he/she is well dressed.
31
Galatea effect (1960s-1970s)
Origin attributed to research on motivation
* Indicates that a person's confidence in their own abilities positively influences their performance. Unlike Pygmalion, the effect is generated by the individual's internal belief.
* Example: A student who believes he is good at maths and gets good grades because of this belief.
32
Primacy effect (early 20th century)
Hermann Ebbinghaus (attributed)
* Indicates the tendency to remember the first elements of a list or sequence better. These receive more initial attention and are more easily encoded in long-term memory.
* Example: Remembering the first speaker of a long lecture.
33
Ikea effect (2000s)
Michael Norton, Daniel Mochon and Dan Ariely
* Describes how people attach more value to objects they have built or assembled themselves, even if they are not perfect.
* Example: Being more fond of a self-assembled piece of furniture than a pre-assembled one.
34
Confirmation bias (1960s)
Peter C. Wason
* Confirmation bias leads to seeking and interpreting information that confirms one's own beliefs, while ignoring contrary ones. This effect reinforces pre-existing beliefs, reducing objectivity.
* Example: Following only news sources that support one's political views.
35
The Good Samaritan Effect (1973)
John Darley and C. Daniel Batson
* Indicates that people are more likely to help another in need when they feel personally involved or empowered.
* Example: Stop to offer help to an injured person when you are the only one present.
36
Stroop Effect (1935)
John Ripley stroop
* Demonstrates the conflict between automatic and intentional processing, particularly when trying to name the colour of a word that indicates a different colour. This effect shows the limits of cognitive processing.
* Example: Saying "green" when the word is written in blue takes longer.
37
Köhler Effect (1927)
Otto Köhler
* Indicates how less competent members of a group increase their performance in order not to feel like a burden on the team. This effect improves collaboration dynamics.
* Example: A less competent member puts more effort into a team task.
38
Framing Effect (1980s)
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
* Indicates how the way in which information is presented influences the decision-making process. People react differently depending on whether an option is formulated in positive or negative terms.
* Example: Choosing a treatment with "90% success" over one described as "10% failure".
39
Recency effect (early 20th century)
Hermann Ebbinghaus (attributed)
* This effect describes how the last elements of a sequence or list are remembered more easily due to their permanence in short-term memory. It is particularly noticeable immediately after exposure.
* Example: Remembering the last number of a series you have just heard.
40
Hindsight bias (1970s)
Baruch Fischhoff
* This effect occurs when, after an event has occurred, one believes that it was predictable from the beginning. By altering memory, one overestimates one's ability to predict.
* Example: Thinking one "always knew" after the outcome of a sports result.
41
Pygmalion Effect (1968)
Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson
* Indicates how one person's positive expectations can influence another's performance, turning it into a self- fulfilling prophecy.
* Example: A teacher who expects excellent results from a student unconsciously motivates him to achieve them.
42
The effect of exposure (1960s)
Robert Zajonc
* The effect describes how repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to increased familiarity and liking. Even without significant interactions, repetition influences preferences.
* Example: Liking a song heard several times on the radio, even if initially disliked.
43
The Negativity Effect (1970s)
Paul Rozin
* People attach more weight to negative events than to positive ones. This bias is rooted in evolution, as negative information was crucial for survival.
* Example: Remembering one criticism received more than many praises.
44
Von Restorff Effect (1933)
Hedwig Von Restroff
* Also known as the isolation effect, it describes how a single item in a homogeneous context is more easily remembered. Selective attention improves the memorisation process.
* Example: Remembering a particularly colorful gift in the midst of neutral packages.
45
Werther Effect (late 18th century)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (literary inspiration)
* Describes the increase in imitative suicides following the publication of suicide news or stories. This effect was observed after the release of The Sorrows of Young Werther.
* Example: Spikes in suicides recorded after intensive news reports.
46
The Bait Effect (1980s)
Joel Huber, John Payne and Christopher Puto
* Describes how a less desirable option (bait) can influence the choice between two alternatives, making one of them more attractive. This is a common phenomenon in purchasing decisions.
* Example: Choosing product A over B when a worse option C is introduced.
47
The Lucifer Effect (1971)
Philip Zimbardo
* Describes the process whereby ordinary individuals may perform evil acts under certain circumstances, often under social or authoritarian pressure. This effect was studied in the Stanford Prison Experiment.
* Example: Prison guards abusing their power under extreme conditions.
48
Bystander Effect (1960s)
John Darley and Bibb Latané
* It concerns the tendency of people not to intervene in emergency situations in the presence of other bystanders. Responsibility is perceived to be shared, leading to inaction.
* Example: Attending to a person in need of help and waiting for someone else to intervene.
49
Uncanny valley
Phenomenon whereby artificial objects or entities that look almost human arouse unease or revulsion. E.g.: overly realistic humanoid robots
50
Tetris effect
Tendency to visualise or dream about repetitive patterns of a recent intense activity. E.g.: Seeing Tetris blocks after playing for hours.
51
Golem Effect
Phenomenon opposite to Pygmalion: negative expectations lead to worse performance. E.g.: A teacher expects failure from a student and worsens his/her performance.
52
Social placebo effect
The belief that a social interaction has benefits leads to real emotional or physical improvements. E.g.: Feeling less anxious after talking to someone, even if the interaction is superficial
53
Eliza effect
Tendency to perceive simple, mechanical responses from a computer as intelligent. E.g.: Chatbots that seem to really understand emotions.
54
Echo Chamber effect
Online social bubble phenomenon: people isolate themselves in groups where their opinions are always confirmed. E.g.: social networks with feeds that reinforce one's ideas.
55
Filter Bubble Effect
Tendency of algorithms to personalise content for the user, reducing exposure to different points of view. E.g.: Only seeing news that confirms one's own beliefs.
56
Dunning-Kruger Effect
Tendency of incompetent people to overestimate their abilities and of competent people to underestimate them. E.g.: An amateur convinced that he is an expert in a complex field.
