EEB 498- Agroecology Flashcards
1
Q
At the time of the Industrial Revolution, what was the general attitude toward the development of agriculture?
A
Generally very excited for the future of agriculture, agriculture would soon be like a factory
2
Q
How did the wartime effort of WWII contribute to the attitude about farming in the US?
A
A very militant attitude towards “pests” and the sort.
Agriculture was seen as a part of the war effort – farmers were producing food as a weapon.
3
Q
What was the attitude of the major pesticide companies toward the farming sector in the face of the anticipated underconsumption crisis of post WWII?
A
Companies stated that their products were a weapon in the war against insects
Farmers have to fight!
Put out lots of propaganda comparing Farmers to Soldiers fighting against Insects (represented as the Communists)
4
Q
What was the general effect of the publication of Silent Spring?
A
Silent Spring pointed out the negative impacts of pesticides (biocides - killing all the biology not just pests)
Made people more critical about the use of pesticides
“Birth of agroecology” and “Birth of the environmental movement”
The chemical industry spent a lot of effort to not publish the book
Brought environmentalism, specifically pollution, into mind of the American public
5
Q
In addition to the book Silent Spring, what may have been (according to lecture speculations) Rachel Carson’s main contribution to agroecology?
A
The use of possible biological pest control (natural pest control)
6
Q
Describe George Washington Carver’s work – include all aspects and emphasize how they contributed to the current discourse on agroecology.
A
A scientist, educator became a professor at Tuskegee University and did research on plant physiology, the idea of agricultural expansion and brought the Jesup wagon to black farming communities to demonstrate to them the new technologies of agriculture (1906).
He particularly emphasized planting alternative crops to cotton (e.g. sweet potatoes and peanuts) to improve soil health and farmer livelihoods.
7
Q
Describe the Howard/Matthaei team and what they did and how it contributed to the development of organic agriculture and eventually agroecology.
A
India: goal was to bring to Indians the wonder of modern agriculture. Once they arrived, they found out that they already knew what they were doing. They decided to study what the Indian farmers were practicing instead and wrote “An agricultural testament”
supported the idea Traditional agriculturists know what they are doing and we can learn from them
8
Q
Who were the Diggers and what did they do and how is that related to agroecology?
A
Group of rural farmers: associated with utilization of the land since they didn’t have much access to their own land
protested/took political action against the current use/control of land by England
9
Q
Describe the four pillars of agroecology and how they are related to Carver, Howard/Matthaei, the Diggers, and Rachel Carson.
A
Political Power: Challenging power in the agricultural sector
The Diggers: Protesting England’s use of land
Rachel Carson, challenging the chemical industry
Science: Bringing in science to the small-scale farming community
George Washington Carver, utilizing the Jesup Wagon to bring science education to farmers.
Nature: Introducing the ideas of ecological complexity
Rachel Carson: Direct observation of lessons from nature
Traditional Knowledge: Bringing farmers’ knowledge to the science community
Howard/Matthaei bringing Indian farmers’ knowledge to the “world” through “An agricultural testament”.
10
Q
What does the sculpture “Departure” by Rowin Gillespie represent?
A
People during the Famine
The sculpture is a commemorative work dedicated to those Irish people forced to emigrate during the 19th century Irish Famine.
11
Q
What was the population of Ireland before the potato famine, how many people died/left because of the famine, and what is the population today?
A
8.5 million before, today it’s 5 million
1 million died and 2 million emigrated during the famine.
12
Q
Generally describe the geography of Ireland before the potato famine (location of industry, agriculture).
A
Agriculture was practiced throughout the country; based in both uplands and lowlands
13
Q
Discuss the importance of peat, seaweed and sheep manure in Irish agriculture.
A
All important forms of fertilizer, each with infrastructure surrounding it
14
Q
Discuss the notion of “infield” and “outfield” in the traditional Baille system.
A
Infield: Where plants grew, and where animals were brought to fertilize fields; Wheat and Barley
Outfield: Where animals grazed, and not much was grown; Pasture
15
Q
What was the Rundale and Clatchan system?
A
Rundale: Land divided into discontinuous plots, cultivated and occupied by tenants who jointly lease it.
Clatchan: poor quality land where animals grazed
according to the Whelan paper - the clachan is the “village” where farmhouses were and where families lived, land holdings were organized communally and a kinship existed between families
16
Q
Discuss the relationship between the collop and “commons” in the Baille system.
A
Communal land for grazing cows; 1 collop = 1 cow’s grazing area worth of land
17
Q
Explain the interaction between infield and outfield in the Baille system.
A
Animals essentially brought what nutrients were in outfields (usually much larger area) to the infields via fertilization, making it good farming land.
Balance between the infield and outfield was carefully and communally managed
18
Q
How does the work of Elinor Ostram relate to the operation of the Baille system?
A
“Managing the Commons” - Ostram studied traditional societies around the world. Ran counter to misanthropic (anti-human) ideas of western ecologists. Empirically demonstrated that traditional societies were highly ecologically sound.
19
Q
Discuss the major changes imposed on Ireland with the expansion of potato production.
A
While Ireland exported wheat, Irish people grew and ate potatoes which were cheaper and easier to produce.
Population grew and was increasingly dependent on the potato
Irish farmers worked at starvation wages
20
Q
How did the style of production of potatoes set the stage for the expansion of the pathogen, Phytophthera infestans?
A
Monocropping led to those issues
Increased potato production interrupted the traditional Baille system
21
Q
What was the British response generally to the potato famine?
A
To supply alternative food sources
Partition bad from good potato parts
Food processing of bad potato parts
Alternative grains (mainly “Indian corn”)
Maintain grain from the east for industrializing England
Malthusian argument: too many Irish people - resulted in the government not wanting to do anything at all (not the fault of the British, but the Irish (too many kids)).
British felt responsible for taking care of all these colonies nearby
Malthusian argument – Evolved an excuse that placed the blame on the irish. Argument they reproduced too much, had too many kids, otherwise they wouldn’t have this problem
22
Q
Why was grain production so important to the Industrial Revolution in England?
A
To feed the workers who worked in the industries of the IR
India, Ireland, China, US and other colonies all provided Grain imports to England
23
Q
Who was Charles Edward Trevelyan and what was his ideology?
A
Fixed on the idea that the problem was too much population. “Malthusian”
Not colonialisms, but over population
Tied to ideas of racism against the Irish “they just keep breeding”
24
Q
What was the experience of the Irish who migrated to the US at the time of the crisis?
A
Irish migrants came during a time of war and males were welcomed if they would join the military
There was lots of prejudice towards Irish people (The Irish were regarded as being in the same class as Black people in the United States)
By the 19th century, the population of Ireland was 8 million
About a million died and 2 million emigrated
25
Summarize the “lessons” from the Irish potato famine
Monocultures do not exist in nature (agriculture!)
Example of what happens in monocultures (little/no genetic variation leads to vulnerability and crops easily fall to disease)
Exporting food (has its problems): no example where there isn’t a famine without exporting food.. only exception is England
Cheap food policy: there was a political reason for the desire to have cheap food and feed the working class
Free trade vs. Fair Trade: invisible hand would solve everything
Racism and agriculture: Irish as inferior
26
Discuss the role of the English in Ireland, India and China with respect to agriculture, in the 19th century.
1. Did not understand other systems of agriculture, and as such, tried to make them “better” via industrialization and favoring of English ideas over traditional ones
2. Ultimately wanted agricultural products to go to their industry
A lot of starvation, but still considered a highly successful system
Ireland, India and China supplied England with grain
Between 19.5-30million people died of famine in India and China 30 years after irish potato famine; all while they were exporting grains to england
27
How did agriculture and colonialism make it possible for the British to rule the world?
By exploiting other countries, they were able to supply massive amounts of industry and military power. This allowed them to exercise control in places far away.
28
What was the impact of the Cuban Revolution on the Cold War?
In 1959, Fidel led the revolution against the colonial empire of the U.S., overthrew Batista who had implemented a police state
US (middle of Cold War) started saying that they would attack Cuba, so Cuba began focusing its efforts with the USSR
US response helped move Cuba towards the Soviet sphere
Threat of a good example if the anticolonial revolution actually worked
Soviet union defeated the nazi at the time and was very powerful.. they were in agreement about one thing
In the US it should be modernize, technolized, mechanized to show the benefit of capitalism, power status
In the soviet union it was the same to show the benefit of communism
29
What was the Special Period in Cuba?
A period of transition after the cold war characterized by many changes made to Cuba’s agricultural sector
In one year, 70% of ag production disappeared
Loss of inputs from the Soviet Union caused the collapse of industrial agriculture
30
Describe the state of agriculture in pre special period Cuba
Monoculture, heavy machinery, lots of use of pesticide
Heavy reliance on exports from Powerful countries - primarily USSR
31
Why did Cuban agriculture develop the way it did between 1959 and 1989, and how was that related to international politics?
Because that was seen as the way to modernize - new agritechnology was meant to show the “wonders of capitalism/communism” depending who was pushing it.
Despite the wish to become more self-sufficient, increased reliance on USSR
32
What are today’s (as of 15 years ago) “pillars” of the Cuban Revolution?
a. Universal Health Care
b. Universal Education
c. Defense
d. Ecology
33
What are organoponics?
Cuba’s new agricultural movement which started during the special period
Using a large proportion of organic matter to grow plants in, rather than just soil
Sophisticated Irrigation System
70% organic matter in the soil
34
What is the role of compost in Cuba’s agroecological transformation?
They always make/utilize compost - it’s very standard practice, to the point that it’s not considered ag without it
35
Describe the attitude of Cuban scientists toward soil fertility in the agroecological transformation.
People are highly educated in Cuba
Soil fertility is considered the highest indicator of agricultural productivity
36
Discuss the general philosophy of pest management in Cuba’s agroecological transformation.
Gradually making the change from artificial pesticides to microbiological “pesticides” - growing bacteria and fungi to kill the pests
CREES centers that are focused on developing these for pest management and geared to the specific crop
37
What is the role of agronomic education in Cuba today?
Agronomic education is central to education in Cuba today. Even very small “farm villages” have dedicated teachers and students are very advanced in their knowledge.
Some farmers behave more like capitalist, others seek a lot of gov’t help and give out the products to farmers for free
38
How does Cuba regulate farm markets?
State sector (cheaper and lower quality) vs. private (more expensive and better quality)
The private sector needs to give the gov’t a portion of the production as tax, and this is what becomes what the state sells
This discourages the market to stabilize prices because they sell right next to each other
Price varies on quality, hence why the state is cheaper
You can’t hire someone from outside your family to work at your farm stand
39
What is the “attitude” (as expressed in lecture) of Cubans about the rules and regulations surrounding the agricultural economy?
It’s constantly changing/flexible
They follow the laws, but if there are laws that don’t make sense they don’t follow them
40
What is the role of urban agriculture in the Cuban transformation?
Urban agriculture plays a vital role in Cuba’s food system, particularly in the form of farms closely surrounding urban centers and towns.
Farmers are seen as low class, so more people have moved to cities
High level of education at all ages
Small, garden plots assisted by organoponics
Countryside – bigger, can’t produce enough for the people. Hard to produce corn or rice, wheat has to be imported
They do grow sorghum, but it’s mostly for livestock
Cuba is still not self-sufficient – they depend on import for some crops
41
Discuss the political transformation initiated by President Obama and changes made by the Trump regime.
bama made great strides to mend the relationship between the U.S. and Cuba
Trump did not advance relations and reinstated the blockade
Biden is very unpopular because of what happened at the Summit of the Americas
Because Biden excluded Cuba, Mexico refused to participate
42
Third vignette: the Cuban system
Similar evolution as western conventional ag
Forced change in philosophy
Underlying political structure permits dramatic evolution (respond rather than plan)
Ecological focus emerges as dominant
Uncertain future - blockade is greatly impeding growth
43
Discuss the idea that agriculture is really nothing more than an extreme form of environmental management.
Classic concept agriculture
1. Hunting & gathering
2. Agriculture
3. Modern agriculture
Agriculture as extreme environmental management
Runs a spectrum from traditional aboriginal “hunting & gathering” to modern industrial agriculture (e.g. Monsanto)
Example: Huaorani “gathering” palm peach fruit, but actually planting 20 years before gathering
All people manage their environment in some way, agriculture as we typically conceive it is extreme in that it relies on short-term, intensive, management, control, and production for specific outcomes.
44
What is the standard story of agriculture (where, when, a little bit of why)
There was a hunter and gatherers theme
From there the term agriculture was born and cities followed
Agriculture started around 10,000 years ago
Vavilov centers
Centers of plant domestication
Rice in China ~ 8000 BC
Wheat in Middle East ~ 8000 BC
Corn in Americas ~7000-6000 BC
45
Discuss the main food acquisition system of the Huaorani of the Amazon.
Hunting: Nomadic groups clear out areas of the forest to establish a temporary hunting camp. After the monkeys adapt and leave, so do the Huaorani (though not necessarily to follow the monkeys).
“Gathering”: Before leaving their hunting camps, the Huaorani plant peach palms. The tribe collects the fruit ~20 years later once the plants mature.
Plant cassava to mash up and make alcohol
46
Do the traditional Huaorani do agriculture? Why is what they do NOT (or IS) agriculture?
Why it is agriculture: They alter the ecosystem systematically to harvest crops (peach palm).
Why it isn’t agriculture: Unlike “conventional” agriculture, they do not tend to the crops as it matures. The time it takes to harvest the crop is more than one human lifetime.
47
Discuss the role of peach palm in the Huaorani diet.
Supplemental to their diet: Main food is monkeys, but huaorani people would return to harvest peach palm that was planted generations before
48
What is the dehesa system?
Human-altered agroforestry ecosystem in southern Spain & Portugal with savannah-like characteristics, grazed by livestock (wild boar, then pigs) and utilized to grow grains.
Fire-prone nature of the system gives rise to oaks with thick bark, which is utilized to produce cork.
They had control of fire, which changed everything
49
Discuss the role of fire in the background habitat and the general management of the dehesa system.
Used periodic fires to manage oak savannas and maintain Cork oak growth
Burns away other vegetation and trees which might compete with the Oaks
50
Why is there cork oak in the dehesa system?
Cork Oak bark is exported as a product
Cultivated acorn from oak trees would be fed to pigs (making their meat tastier and of higher demand)
Hunters would hunt a piece of the dehesa to get wild boars
51
How has fire been part of the history of the genus Homo? When did we learn to control fire?
Homo erectus discovered how to use it first around 1 MYA, used as a way of ecosystem management similar to how it is used today
52
Original Australian people had a particular land management system that was referred to as hunting and gathering. Why might this traditional way of looking at it be wrong?
They utilized systemic/historic knowledge to find ideal gathering/hunting sites, rather than a random search.
There was evidence of gathering en-masse rather than scattershot foraging (i.e. British witnessing women gathering yam daisy to capacity over a large area).
They utilized fire to clear areas for ecosystem management/hunting & gathering.
53
What is the yam daisy and how does it go against the European narrative about the lack of agriculture in Australian original people.
Yam daisy is a grasslands plant that produces edible tuberous roots.
There was evidence of gathering en-masse rather than scattershot foraging (i.e. British witnessing women gathering yam daisy to capacity over a large area).
54
How did European sheep farming interfere with traditional agriculture in Australia?
Altered the landscape (no more fire management of the ecosystem)
55
Describe the fishing techniques of the original Australian people.
They utilized stone-based fish traps in streams where they would collect fish in the resulting basins.
56
On what did the inhabitants of Chan Chan subsist?
Primarily seafood (fish, mollusks), rather than mammals and grain.
57
What is the “Fertile Crescent”?
Valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known for being the oldest recorded site of agriculture (Sumerians).
58
What happened in the fertile Crescent? Was it truly a unique event?
Oldest recorded instance of domestication/agriculture.
Not a unique occurrence, as this happened organically and independently across the globe (e.g. China, Mesoamerica).
59
How old is the dehesa system and how do we know?
1.1Million Years Ago; Atapuerca in Spain; 4 Different Archaeological Sites today. Might go back this far. (Homo Erectus)
60
Discuss the relationship between pigs and oaks in the dehesa system.
The pigs eat the acorns of the oaks, which flavors their meat and subsequently allows it to be sold at a high premium.
61
From where does the most expensive ham come from?
The dehesa region (Portugal/Spain). $4,000
62
.How does the Argan system of Morocco relate to the Dehesa system?
Has a similar oak savannah, but with goats instead of pigs eating the seeds of the argan tree rather than dehesa trees.
Like how dehesa pigs are a delicacy, Argan trees are utilized to produce oil for the beauty industry.
Goats come up to the trees to eat the fruit
Similar to an oak savannah
Produces argon oil. Doesn’t produce much food, but it’s a profitable one
63
Discuss the diversity of diet in the people of Chan Chan. What were the major storehouses for dried fish for?
They would dry the fish as a way of storage (similar to refrigeration)
Sand-filled rooms for storage: they would bury fish in sand
Diverse diet in the form of marine resources (fish, shellfish, etc.)
64
Discuss the relationship between the rural areas around Chan Chan and the city itself
City had a lot of civic architecture
Eventually grew cotton and gourds which would be used to make fishing nets and floats
65
Discuss the irrigation systems of the Moshe people.
They used the hill as a form of irrigation system where the water comes down and the crops are watered (let gravity take its course)
Pottery shards found near canals indicate that people collect water.
66
What are the so-called Vavilov centers of domestication? How did Charles Harlan modify the basic ideas of Vavilov?
8 centers of domestication
Centers were defined as areas where an unusual amount of crops were domesticated (domestication hotspots)
Charles Harlan proposed there were both centers and non-centers, and that only 3 of Vavilov’s 8 centers were true centers.
67
Discuss the idea of domination of nature as it applies to ecosystem management and explicitly to agriculture.
The idea that nature should be dominated and controlled vs. the idea that nature is something we are part of and participate in (borrow the environment from our children and grandchildren)
A way of dominating nature is through the use of fire
Way of manipulating and having control of nature
Even more so when you’re bringing nature indoors
Examples: machine to break up the soil
68
What was the debate between Paul Ehrlich and Julian Simon about?
Core concept: Resource scarcity in relation to population growth.
Born out of Malthusian Theory → Populations will grow exponentially, but food will only grow linearly, and therefore population will outgrow food supply.
Ehrlich’s bet: England won’t exist in 2000 due to resource scarcity.
He and his wife wrote “Population Bomb”
Simon’s bet: Cost of non-government-controlled raw materials (incl. grain and oil) won’t rise in the long-run.
“More people do more good things”
69
What was the point of view about population and the development of agriculture held by Ester Boserup?
If you produced too much food, you would reduce resource allocation towards production.
If you could not produce enough food (despite best efforts), you put more people to work.
Posited sustainable vs. necessary populations.
Sustainable population: Constrained the size of the population.
Necessary population: Constrained the types of technologies that could be utilized/developed.
70
Discuss the idea of necessary versus sustainable population for human populations.
Sustainable population: Constrained the size of the population.
Necessary population: Constrained the types of technologies that could be utilized/developed.
Population has historically only been managed at the family level in response to the forces of sustainable vs necessary population.
Driven by ecological and social pressures to reproduce, making us distinct from other (non-great ape) animals.
Bigger family means:
Higher resource usage
Higher productivity capacity
Can incorporate gender bias with regards to
Succession
Labor
Long duraei..long periods of stability
71
What is the Allee effect in ecology, how does it relate to necessary population?
Goldfish in a group do better than Goldfish in isolation; physiologically. True for most populations in nature.
All Animals have an Allee point (minimum sustainable population) and a carrying capacity (maximum sustainable population).
Population can’t get started until you have a min number of individuals co-habitant in order to get to a carrying capacity
Initial goldfish water makes it ideal for future goldfish populations
72
Discuss the ideas of niche construction and ecosystem engineering.
Do beavers “engineer” their environment or construct their niche?
Engineering: affects others
is everything else that lives in the niche constructed by the inv organism
Construction: affects your population
Other things also live in the niche they created. And so it is ecosystem engineering.
Beavers: they construct a beaver pond, but other species live in it so therefore an ecosystem has been constructed
73
Discuss how contructivism as a philosophy is a challenge to determinism.
Determinism - “The environment proposes, evolution disposes.”
Constructivism - The environment/niche is constructed by the organism and the organism evolves to fit into the niche – ongoing cycle/process.
The Triple Helix – Gene, Organism, and Environment
74
How is it that organism and environment are “dialectically” related?
Both are processes, not isolated organisms where one has dominion over the other.
They are processes rather than things - each fuels the development of the other
75
What is the background setting for the domestication processes in the fertile crescent?
Consisted of mountains with mixed and open woodlands at high elevation and gradual drop in elevation gave way to savannas, then open woodland, desert, grasslands and Mediterranean scrub – this created a wide range in ecosystems that were accessible to human cultivation
76
What a Wadis in the context of early agriculture in the Middle East?
Water Catchment system which restricted water flow from the rainy season to preserve growth for the dry season.
A primitive technology that retains water from rain in an area for future ag purposes
77
Discuss the tripartite relationship between fishing, farming and herding in early Middle Eastern food acquisition systems.
Interaction amongst them created the conditions for cultural evolution
78
What is the genetic background that gave rise to maize in Mexico?
The wild progenitor – teosinte – looks more bushy, has a longer stem, and much smaller cobs. Stalk can also be used as sugar cane. Once it was being used for that purpose people selected for larger and larger cobs of maize
79
Describe the environmental background that is likely to have existed in Mexico during the early stages of maize domestication.
This region was defined by the dichotomy of swamp lowlands and dry highlands. This lead to very fertile lowlands, as well as the hillsides of the highlands. This created fertile valleys
80
Compare the ecological background in the Middle East versus Mexico setting during early stages of domestication. What were the major differences?
Mexican highlands had hills and valleys and was more complicated in terms of the landscape ecology
The landscape was more topographically complex (with multiple highland/lowland alternating areas)
The Middle East had a more uni-directional, graded change from low coastal areas moving upslope inland
This created a single ecological gradient of different habitat types, versus the multiple ups and downs encountered in Mexico
81
In extensive slash and burn agriculture, describe the process of burning as a structured intellectual activity.
The idea of creating a fertile, competition-free landscape through burning; Burnt field, ashes and sticks and trees that didn’t burn. In the tropics most of the nutrients are in the plants, not in the soil! Ash has all of the nutrients needed for agriculture; what is left is nutrients needed to grow.
Dibble stick is used to plant corn and beans together. Lots of growth in the first year; but nutrients decline year after year as nutrients from ash are used. Nutrients flow away with the rain; you can get as many as 5 seasons at one spot. Then you have to move on from that one spot
Fallow - several years after the field no longer has nutrients for growing agricultural plants it will be repopulated by secondary growth plants
Managing the “Fallow” as good or bad – monte; Legume were considered good (nitrogen fixation); Plants in the Banana Family; easy to cut it out (potassium is secondary benefit); Any Spiny plant is mal monte. You need 15times the area needed to plant
82
How does the general process of slash and burn agriculture appear to be similar to the process of ecological succession?
Disruption to the ecosystem
Reduces current vegetation to allow for new growth while keeping (alters the ecosystem to a secondary ecological succession state). However instead of allowing plants to come back on their own and recolonize the area, people are planting crops to occupy that space
- The rotation of the agricultural sites through the fallow allows much of the natural vegetation to regrow during the period of time it is not being grown - this allows for a variety of age of growth throughout the area being utilized
83
What is the “Marceño” system of southern Mexico and how does (did) it work?
Thalia plant in a swamp – has tubers underneath the ground – if you cut the vegetation it grows back.
Farmers cut it and wait for it to dry – before you burn it you go through with a dibble stick and plant maize seeds in the hole – when the tips of the corn leaf get just to the surface level, then you burn it. Singed corn leaves. Thalia comes back up with the corn, burning is supposed to mitigate that. This occurs in a wet swamp.
6 month fallow during the rainy system – Marceno system.
Since then these waterways have been drained into canals – extensive cattle production has replaced this
84
Distinguish between migratory slash and burn and traditional slash and burn agriculture.
Migratory slash and burn destroys the forest over the time by having incompatible land management practices which kill soil cycles permanently (tropical rainforests are too wet);
Typically happens in relatively advanced areas with impoverished people who don’t own land
Traditional slash and burn does not because it follows a more ecological pattern which leaves much of the land fallow through rotation.
85
What is the relationship between slash and burn agriculture and conservation of biodiversity?
Traditional slash and burn encourages/maintains biodiversity
If you don’t burn, the plants that shade out others will dominate everything
Contradiction between migratory slash and burn vs. conservation due to political incentives
Migratory slash and burn
Advanced society that doesn’t have many lands titles
Go to areas and try to farm
Pacific to north side of Nicaragua with “free land” but climates were different and they didn’t know how to farm in those temperatures
“Free land” was already occupied by indigenous people
86
Describe the ways in which traditional slash and burn agriculture is technologically sophisticated
Burning is important to maintain biodiversity and to preserve species, if we didn’t burn species will outcompete each other and dominate which will eliminate diversity
Choice of the plot includes ecological and social considerations
Elimination of vegetation – tools (axes and machetes), selecting plants that are easy to cut, how easy is it to eliminate?
Burning; allowing vegetation to dry to a mean point so that the burn is complete (nothing but ash) if you burn too early you miss the residual weeds; too late and new weeds start to pop up; if rain falls before the burn, you will get a bad burn
Planting Combinations – 3 sister plants: Corn, Maize, and Squash – squash covers the weeds; microclimates at the plots, potential of weeds, farmers are constantly experimenting
farmers constantly experimenting with combinations to create richer soils for burning in the future
Husbandry – taking care of plants as they grow; eliminating crop competitors manually and with care; picking off individual insects
Harvest - time of season is very important
Fallow Management – managing what is in the fallow; chopping and removing plants as they go – or planting things in the fallow
87
Discuss the idea of managing the fallow in traditional slash and burn agriculture
Managing the fallow as you walk through, cutting down any weeds and removing plants (knowing what is in your fallow and when it’s ready to burn)
88
Distinguish among 1) decreasing the fallow period, 2) after the critical fallow size, and 3) “true” intensification.
decreasing the fallow period, - traditional balance requires leaving a majority of the land fallow, increasing production means leaving less fallow
after the critical fallow size – when you have used up all of the land and cannot leave any fallow in order to keep up with production requirements
“true” intensification. – Land distortion/modification (Irrigation canals, terraces, pesticides)
89
How is it possible (likely? ) that intensification is basically a critical transition phenomenon?
Farmers reach a point where population growth outpaces the land available and then must either move to a new location or intensify production.
After critical fallow size reached, agricultural intensification happens
90
. Describe the dryland farming techniques of the Hopi people in southwestern North America.
Hopi people in Arizona; before the Renaissance; 5 dynasties began in China; etc. The Oldest City in the US – Dibble stick – dig down for residual moisture, plant corn deep in the ground; they look for moisture and plant. Have a large variety of corn. Seedbank here in southern Arizona – use dwarf varieties.
Flood Restriction farming: They build a dam right across the floodplain to hold the water back, this extends the floodplain.. depending on where you put the dam, the floodplain can be extended extensively.. Usually has agriculture in an irrigated terrace
91
Discuss early water diversion techniques to deal with the water problem in agriculture.
Building stone walls across a wash (temporary seasonal waterway) in order to restrict water flow and retain moisture. Very ancient structures.
Flood-restriction farming; agriculture in ; build a dam in the water in order to extend the floodplain, increases agriculture potential. Building an irrigation canal through other dammed areas. Typically done on a terrace.
Moche culture developed in one of the most dry areas in the world; they diverted water from the Chicama river and brought it to their land through the intervalley canal
92
Discuss the relationship between massive civic architecture and agricultural intensification.
The unit measurement between rural and civic agriculture is vastly different; cities’ unit size tend to be smaller, meaning less production per hectare for agriculture given space limitations
Carl Marz .. the idea of a city doesn’t happen until you have very productive agriculture
Karl Marx - the agricultural “revolution” of the domestication of plants and animals and agricultural intensification were the trigger which allowed cities to develop and civic agriculture to be possible; discredited by Gobekli and Catalhoyuk which indicate social and ritualistic motivations for civic agriculture from hunter-gatherer societies
Civic architecture indicates class structure, doesn’t directly benefit those building it. Agricultural intensification is necessary to feed growing populations.
93
Reflect on the timing of domestication and the emergence of civic architecture.
Evidence of civic architecture before agricultural domestication
Gobleki Tepe in Turkey (13,000 years old)
Before agriculture, hunter/gatherers join together to build structures/monuments presumably for ritualistic purposes
Housing units found…became kind of like a city before the invention of agriculture
Catalhoyuk (9,000 years old)
Primitive agriculture, large congregation of people in housing units
Proof showing domestication of cattle occurring as “city” is built up
Had wild bull horns in older homes, and later domesticated cattle
Mohenjodoro (Indus valley 6000BCE (8000 years old))
From the YouTube video: hunting/gathering societies had little that kept the human community cemented together
The reward of hunting and gathering would be immediately obtained once the food was collected and consumed
Agriculture requires a depth of time to achieve reward (the harvest), which means you need people to be together first and you need something motivating people to stay together, cooperate, and collectively invest in some as labor intensive and stationary as agriculture can be
Catalhuyuk was an example of this since many people were living together in the space with no signs of agriculture (although there were indications that domestication was beginning to occur)
94
describe the early debate about population density in the Mayan lowlands.
Tikal; Population Density; by the time the Europeans arrived the civic architecture sites were abandoned; referred to as the city of the dead. Slash and Burn agriculture; corn, beans, squash – fallow was the norm in food production; in order to support population density based on archaeology, ancient Mayans had to be doing something other than slash and burn agriculture which would indicate a much lower population.
Archeological study of households indicated a much larger population than estimated based on slash and burn agriculture alone.
95
Describe the importance of the discovery at El Tigre in Tabasco Mexico
River creating a wetland area which is good for agriculture in the Mayan lowlands.
Indications that ancient mayans practiced intense environmental management to produce crops, including water management and clearing of forests for crops.
96
What evidence does Pulltrouser swamp in Belice provide about agriculture?
at evidence does Pulltrouser swamp in Belice provide about agriculture?
Structured Platform Agriculture built in swamp by ancient people – opposite of irrigation, build dry areas. People built mounds….
97
Describe the agricultural basis of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan.
Densely populated by urban farmers in a large inland lake. “Interpreted as floating gardens” but weren’t actually floating. Most likely used sediment from the water as fertilizer to intensify agricultural production.
Temples of status were covered over bc there was evidence of human sacrificing, warfare, and slavery
98
What is the significance of the Floating gardens of Xochimilco today?
Canals, lined by willow trees to maintain the bank. Used as a tourist attraction. Produce a huge number of flowers. Diversity of agricultural production. Maize, and high value crops: tomatoes, peppers. Aquatic vegetation. Connecting the aquatic sector with the terrestrial sector. Done today. It is slowly disappearing due to development.
The entire city was urban farming
They grew high value crops, not maize
Canals all through the houses
99
Describe the Chinampas system of agriculture.
Small canals lined by agricultural production, managed via boat. Chinamperos use big canvas bags and put it all the way to the bottom and pull up organic matter from the bottom of the canal. Plant seeds into the mud in small cut block sections, plant them on the platform. They collect the aquatic vegetation. The invasive waterlily is one example, because it pulls a lot of nutrients from the water. Huge numbers of fish in the canal. “Topin” little fish deep fried. Abundance declining due to invasive Tilapia. Tropical smelt. Clams, snails, mollusks.
Connects the aquatic with the terrestrial sector
The aquatic life is extremely rich because of nutrient cycling
100
How does the Chinampas system partly resolve the population size debate in the Maya?
Can presume that the Mayan sector also used these resources and utilized this intensive agricultural technique, not just slash and burn agriculture
Mayans also used the aquatic sector as a nutrient source in order to have intensive agriculture along with slash and burn. Structures like the Chinampas are found throughout the region. Mayans today are all slash and burn but in the past they had aquatic intensification.
Intensification through the use of terraces as a way of agriculture, both in the inca and maya cultures
101
Describe the qualitative nature of the systems ecology of the chinampas.
Exceedingly rich aquatic life. People eat fish and turtles. Runoff from agriculture goes into the waterway, then is pulled back out in the next season. Nutrient cycling. Eutrophication gets canceled out when people harvest and utilize the muck. Nitrate from poop degrades slowly in the water, whereas concentrated nitrate pellets release quickly
102
Discuss the implications of combining the aquatic sector with the terrestrial sector
Mulberry system in China, and other examples all over the world demonstrate that there is a great potential for nutrient cycling utilizing the aquatic sector…
In Chinampas people rely on both terrestrial crops as well as fish, turtles, and nutrients from water. Diversity in ecosystem and diet.
103
Discuss the “drudgery” involved in making terraces and how to live with it.
Very difficult to construct and maintain terraces
In Peru, the rocks structuring terrace walls had to be notched together in certain ways to protect the structure from earthquakes
This was likely driven from a hierarchical structure in society, the poor and powerless coerced or forced to do the hard labor for the wealthy
104
What is the evidence that the ancient Maya made extensive terraces (there are very few terraced systems in the modern Mayan area).
The Valley of the Incas has terraces going all the way up the mountain.
More recent mapping of ancient Mayan areas showed land contours consistent with terraces running up mountain slopes.
105
Reflect on the amount of labor involved in maintaining the massive terraces of the Inca in Peru.
It would require constant work.
Implies some sort of power hierarchy
The people building the terraces were most likely not building for the energy return of the corn (it’s not worth the effort), could indicate slavery
Complex and intricate stonework required significant labor
106
. Reflect on the amount of labor involved in making terraces high up on steep mountain slopes.
It would be a monumental effort, and would perhaps cost more energy than it produced.
107
Discuss the observation (or claim) that paddy rice farming represents the epitome of pre-industrial agricultural intensification.
Traditional paddy rice farming involves terracing, irrigation, nutrient cycling, and several other forms of pre-industrial intensification.
It includes allowing a fern to grow, then draining water out of the terrace so that the fern improves soil nitrogen.
Many keep flocks of geese in rice paddies that eat a lot of insects and a lot of seedlings of what would be weeds
Requires an intense social structure because the terraced system creates ecological relationships between people.
108
Reflect on the biodiversity consequences of a traditional rice landscape.
Catalhoyuk: dometic cult integrated into everyday life
Gobekli: part of a ritual center
Ritualist actions occur in both societies: killing, teasing, baiting and feasting on wild animals and creating memories over events
Focus on death and ancestry that creates linkages between people and time depth
farming : clear land together, invest in tools and have to hold community together before we get a return on labor
Farms have time depth unlike hunter-gathers who receive investment right away
