Educational policies (education). Flashcards
Who are educational policies brought in by ?
The government.
What did the 1944 Education Act do ?
Made secondary education universal and free.
Who introduced the 1944 Education Act ?
R.A Butler.
What time period was the act brought in and by what party ?
Before the end of the war, by the conservatives.
What were the three types of schools and what was the system known as ?
The Tripartite system - grammar schools, secondary modern schools, technical schools.
What system did the act introduce ?
Academic selection, with a test being taken known as the 11 plus which determined what school children would attend.
What is included in the 11 plus test today and why ?
Verbal and non - verbal reasoning in order to ensure equality for pupils coming from a range of different primary schools.
What did the 11 plus aim to test ?
Intelligence.
Based on the results of the 11 plus test, what type of school out of the 3 would students go to ?
academic intelligence - grammar schools, technical intelligence - technical schools, practical intelligence - secondary schools.
When the 1944 Education Act was created what was the idea behind the type of school students would go to ?
The schools were presented as being “equal but different”, and argued that academic intelligence wasn’t superior, however it was more likely to get you into further / higher study and qualifications resulting in a better job in the future.
What do grammar schools do for pupils ?
These are for pupils who performed strongly academically.
What do technical schools do for pupils ?
Mechanics and engineering are mainly taught and prepare students for work in related trade. There were significantly fewer technical schools, less than 3% attended them.
What do secondary modern schools do for pupils ?
Practical intelligence, many pupils attended these schools, don’t have sixth forms and many pupils left these schools to go into employment initially at 15, later at 16.
What did the conservatives want to do to grammar schools ?
Introduce a new generation of grammar schools, seen as being able to support social mobility. (movement through social hierarchy / stratification)
Why was the 11 plus argued to be unfair ?
It did not facilitate that students might develop at different ages or demonstrate different skills at different times. It also didn’t account for pupils having a range of strengths and skills.
What was a major criticism of the Tripartite system ?
Grammar schools were overwhelmingly middle class and secondary moderns were overwhelmingly working class. Despite the system claiming it was meritocracy and a vehicle for social mobility in reality it simply reproduced class inequalities.
What were some reasons for a class divide in selective education ?
Out of school and in school factors, middle class students were prepared, whereas students in working class wouldn’t have been prepared (labelling also contributed to this), some questions could be understood better with experience which many working class pupils didn’t have.
What problems did working class students face with grammar schools ?
They were expected to leave secondary modern early in able to work, possible further expenses, wouldn’t fit in due to coming from a different backgrounds,
What was the 11 plus exam accused of doing ?
Favouriting white pupils and despite language barriers and cultural differences were not meant to effect the test, it did. It wasn’t intentionally meant to do this (the test was written in an ethnocentric way) but it did.
What did many educationalists feel by the 1960’s ?
They were keen to replace the tripartite system and the principle of academic selection and were instead replaced by comprehensive schools.
What are comprehensive schools ?
Schools that do not select students based on academic ability, they are mixed ability schools.
What happened to secondary modern / grammar schools in the 1960’s ?
They were criticised as being socially exclusive and divisive.
Who encouraged comprehensive schools ?
The labour government.
How did comprehensive schools replace the tripartite system ?
It was an educational policy over a long period of time, with the real drive being the labour government, however the conservative government actually closed the most grammar schools.
Why did Anthony Crosland want to push comprehensive schools ?
Because he believed in the equality of opportunity and outcome.
What were some characteristics of comprehensive schools ?
You didn’t have to sit an 11 plus exam, all ability ranges are accommodated, most have sixth forms or connections to ones (opening up the possibility to study beyond 16)
How are comprehensive schools doing in contemporary society ?
They are having a longevity and are the norm for most.
What is a criticism of comprehensive schools ?
Some criticise that comprehensive schools still use the system of streaming, setting or banding and therefore there is still selection and that despite pupils of all ability being taught, it is happening in different classrooms.
What is an argument against comprehensive schools setting / streaming / banding ?
That they have a more flexible approach to selection.
What are social divisions now about ?
Location.
What would critics believe / argue about comprehensive schools saying that one size fits all ?
Critics believe that comprehensive schools ignore the fact that all children are different.
What was a criticism from the New Right about comprehensive schools ?
That they prevent meritocracy.
What did Andrew Neil argue ?
He believed that the comprehensive system did not provide the meritocratic path that grammar schools did. For example, post war, those from the bottom could work their way up, whereas now only the rich and powerful can reach the top.
Why has Neil’s views been criticised ?
His point is backed up by a very small amount of evidence, whilst there is much more evidence of people from a wide range of social backgrounds getting into university, acquiring professional qualifications, getting into highly paid jobs.
What was a criticism about comprehensive schools in terms of what they are taught ?
Whether or not any of it is actually useful in producing a workforce that the UK economy needs and that only very little amounts of knowledge would be useful in the future / workplace.
What happened in 1976 ?
James Callaghan made a speech arguing that the education system was not producing pupils with the right skills that were needed for the modern economy. Comprehensivisation had helped students to attain academic qualifications but many jobs now required practical and technical skills.
What did James Callaghan’s speech inspire ?
New educational developments that led to BTEC’s being introduced.
What is vocational education and what does it do ?
It is an alternative to academic education and focuses on preparing students for work in a particular industry / field of employment.
What is vocational education stereotypically seen as being and what was done ?
Less value that academic qualifications, however the government regularly tried to re - boot vocational qualifications.
What was done in 2016 in terms of vocational courses / qualifications ?
They were pushed by the conservative government by offering apprenticeships to job sectors that might not be possible without a degree.
What has been the recent and biggest change in vocational qualifications and why has it happened ?
The growth in modern day apprenticeships, where students spend most of their week in the workplace with a few days in college. This has grown since the compulsory age of education was changed to 18.
What is a major criticism of vocational education ?
It essentially brought back a two tiered system that comprehensive schools had tried to get rid of, as these courses / qualifications were mainly taken by working class students whilst the academic courses were taken by middle class students.
Why were vocational qualifications regularly rebooted ?
Because they were seen as being less worthy and weren’t valued in the same way as academic qualifications e.g. GCSE’s and A levels.
What have vocational qualifications also been accused of being ?
Valued too highly.
What act did the conservative government introduce in the 1980’s ?
The 1988 Education reform act.
What initiatives did the 1988 Education reform act include ?
The national curriculum, SAT’s, GCSE’s, league tables, more parental choices, budgeting powers for head teachers.
What did these initiatives created by the 1988 Education Act result in ?
A market mechanism (where the supply and demand, good schools determines whether parents will choose to send their child there and spend their money) in the education system where parents had information about schools and that schools that attracted parents attracted funding as a result.
What is marketization ?
The incentive for schools to get the best exam results as they would get more students and more funding, resulting in competition between schools.
What is the national curriculum ?
Where students are taught the same topics at the same time.
What were the two reasons for introducing the National curriculum ?
It made it easier to compare students using standardised tests, and it took control away from the local authorities. (which the government believed to be politically extreme)
Why were SAT’s introduced ?
So that students could take the same national test at the same time so that fair comparisons could be made. This information is then published in school league tables.
Why were league tables introduced ?
To be able to show parents data on which schools were the best / worst.
What were league tables intended to create ?
A parentocracy where parents where in charge of the education system as they were able to decide where to send their children to, and where school funding would be directed.
Why was formula funding introduced ?
To be able to control the funding for schools and that the more pupils schools attracted the higher the funding they receive.
What did formula funding do to education / schools and what did it lead to ?
It provided a huge incentive for schools to do well and place highly on the league tables in order to attract parents, therefore students, therefore funding. This led to competition between schools.
Why did local management of schools take place ?
Headteachers, governors had to start looking after the school budget as it was no longer a responsibility for the local authorities.
What educational set - up was created due to the 1988 Education Act ?
OFSTED.
What did OFSTED do ?
Gave parents more information to help them make choices in the parentocracy.
What replaced local inspectors ?
A regulatory body, with a national body.
What did the regulatory body do ?
Visit schools (colleges and nurseries) regularly and produce reports on whether or not they are meeting nationally - agreed standards.
What information suggests that the 1988 Education Act was effective ?
Many factors of the act have remained in place.
Why was the national curriculum criticised and what has been done to change this ?
Being too restrictive, however it has become more flexible. This does make it more difficult to standardise however maths, English remain mostly the same.
Why have SAT’s been criticised?
Students were being put under a lot of pressure with such regular testing, and there was a concern that children were simply being taught to do tests and that a lot of broader education was being missed.
Why have league tables been criticised ?
They put a lot of pressure on schools.
Who does the system favour ?
Those with money. Those who wish to send their child to a particular school might not be able to and by having money are able to move house.
What can parents playing the system be related to ?
Cultural capital and parental attitudes to education.
What policy has been recently introduced to do with school funding and why ?
Pupil premium was introduced and is a grant that helps to improve educational outcomes for disadvantaged students who go to poorer funded schools due to poorer results on league tables / SAT’s.
What is local management of schools ?
Where headteachers and governors manage their own budget.
What are schools called that opted out of local authority control called ?
Grant - maintained schools.
What does OFSTED stand for ?
Office for Standards in Education.
What was one example of policies introduced when the Labour party came into power (1997) ?
Academies. These are state funded schools funded directly by the government. Academies were expanded under the conservative Michael Gove.
What were academies able to do ?
They set their own admissions policies and did not have to follow the National Curriculum.
What were academies seen as being when they were first introduced ?
A status imposed on failing schools in an attempt to improve them.
What government introduced tuition fees ?
Labour.
Why were tuition fees introduced ?
It was seen as a way of raising money to pay for the sector.
What is an example of a policy introduced to close help with material / cultural deprivation ?
Sure Start centres.
What do sure start centres provide ?
They are a form of compensatory education. They provide parenting and health advice for all ages, childcare and early years education.
What has happened to sure start centres over the years ?
They are still operating however many closed during the 2007 financial crisis where cuts were made.
What were introduced in 1998 ?
Education Action Zones (formally known as Education Priority Areas in the 1960’s)
Why were Education Action Zones introduced ?
They aimed to attract sponsorship and investment from the private sector, in order to help to gain profit for areas with high levels of deprivation.
What was the results of Education Action Zones and why ?
They were not seen as being a high success due to a lack of sponsorship and even when profit was made there were very little improvements, and so was not continued past its 5 year trial.
What were some problems with the policies created in the late 1980 / 90’s - 2000’s ?
They did not appear to be entirely consistent.. E.g. they government got rid of “grant maintained schools” but later introduced academies. The government also appeared to continue the work of previous governments or begin programmes that would be extended further by future governments.
What happened to the Educational Maintenance Allowance (EMA) and why ?
It was removed in 2010 as it felt that students were not spending their funding appropriately and it assumed that those students from better off families were being provided for / receiving financial support.
What was the EMA replaced with ?
A pot of money held by schools and colleges that they could use when they believed to be necessary.
What is the Educational Maintenance Allowance (EMA) and why was it introduced ?
It allowed for school and college students (16 - 19) to receive £30 a week for attending. This was done to try and compensate for material deprivation helping students to be able to afford books, uniform, travel to and from school helping to offer equal access into further education alongside their better off peers.
Who were the Education Action Zones trying to attract ?
Schools and the community attracting sponsorship from the private sector.
What did the Education Action Zones carry on from ?
The initiatives from the 1970’s.
What is privatisation ?
Where institutions or bodies are transferred from being owned by the state / government, to being owned by private companies.
What did Ball and Youdell (2007) identify ?
Endogenous and exogenous privatisation.
What is endogenous privatisation ?
Means that schools are privatised from within.
What is exogenous privatisation ?
Where private companies take over aspects of educational services from the state / government.
What has marketisation policies led to ?
Schools operating increasingly in the manner of private companies. They advertise against their competitors, school takeovers, parents are increasingly like consumers.
What is in contrast to endogenous privatisation ?
Direct and actual privatisation with academies and free schools run by private companies rather than by the government.
What has happened in terms of the growth of private companies ?
They are providing more educational services and private companies running examination boards.
Who supports the trend in growth of private companies growing in the educational industry and why?
New Right as they see it as being more efficient and innovative and more likely to drive up standards.
Under what government has this trend in private companies in the educational industry increased ?
Coalition and Conservative governments since 2010.
Who were the coalition government (2010 - 2015) and it’s educational secretary Michael Gove influenced by ?
The educational policies in Sweden.
What were the educational policies in Sweden ?
“Free schools”.
What led to the establishment of “free schools” ?
Demand from parents, community groups / companies.
What are the examples of “free schools” in the UK ?
New academies and new faith schools, private schools that offer students free tuition.
What is a difference in companies that run schools in Sweden compared to the UK ?
Companies are able to make profit from schools which is not permitted in the UK.
What are the conflicts between “free schools”.
Some feel that many free schools have not recruited a sufficient amount of students to stay open whereas some have proved to be popular and a success.
How have “free schools” worked out in Sweden ?
They have failed to raise standards overall and have increased social and religious segregation in society. Some want to reverse the policy of free schools.
What is academisation ?
The process of converting a publicly funded school into an academy which are funded directly by the government.
What is the difference between public schools and academic schools ?
Academic schools are funded by the government whereas public schools are independent schools that charge fees.
What are people’s opinions on academisation ?
Many teachers feel like it is an attack on their pay, conditions etc. School managers are often positive about the news however as it provides access to funding which is not available under local authority control.
What are the political concerns about educational policies and why ?
Some academy chains fail to take responsibility, withdrawing from schools causing problems for parents. Despite it being a small number it raises concerns as most schools are academic.
What do critics say about money making from schools ?
They argue that individuals can make a lot of money from schools leading to some decisions being made based on revenue rather than education.
How has globalisation happened ?
Economically, politically, socially and culturally.
What is globalisation ?
How the world has become more interconnected in recent decades.
What does modern technology mean ?
That communication and travelling around the world is easier.
How has education been impacted by globalisation ?
Schools and education systems are now competing on a global league table rather than just national or local competition.
How are education policies influenced ?
By other policies that have been proved successful in other parts of the world.
How has the UK economy changed ?
Manufacturing jobs have been exported and so the economy has become more dependant on the service sector. Therefore the old correspondence between school and factories (believed by Bowles and Gintis) is no longer relevant.
Due to the changing UK economy how is the hidden curriculum expected to change ?
Different skills and expectations need to be taught.
Why is the UK economy unable to compete with many emerging economies and what has been suggested that they do instead?
Cheap labour costs in those other countries and instead have been suggested to compete in terms of skills.
How is the UK doing in terms of skills compared to other companies and what party has tried to help this ?
They are far behind higher placed countries, with the Labour government in the 1990’a trying to get half of all school students to get degrees.
What have the UK done to try and improve their policies ?
Use policies from countries that perform better than the UK.
What do not all sociologists believe ?
That globalisation is actually happening and that schools / education have had to respond to the changes in the world’s economy regardless.
What is a current educational policy from the conservative party ?
New grammar schools.
What is a current educational policy from the labour party ?
Free university tuition fees.
What is a current educational policy from the liberal democrats ?
Pupil premium
What does the organisation for economic co - operation and development do ?
Encourages schools and countries to do better on the global league tables.
