Education

Question 1

What is sociology?

Answer 1

Sociology is the study of society and of people and the behaviour

Question 2

What makes up the middle class?

Answer 2

Middle class or non manual occupations include professionals such as doctors or teachers, together with managers and other “white collar” office workers and owners of businesses.

Question 3

What makes up the Working class?

Answer 3

Working class or manual occupations include skilled workers such as plumbers, semi skilled workers such as lory drivers, and unskilled or routine workers such as cleaners.

Question 4

What are internal factors?

Answer 4

These are factors within schools and the education system, such as interactions between pupils and teachers, and inequalities between schools.

Question 5

What are external factors?

Answer 5

These are factors outside the education system, such as the influence of home and family background and wider society

Question 6

What are the three main aspects of cultural deprivation?

Answer 6

1)Language
2)Parents education
3)Working class subculture

Question 7

Cultural deprivation, language: Hubbs-Tait et al and Leon Feinstein

Answer 7

Hubbs-Tait et al found that where parents use language that challenge their children to evaluate their own understanding or abilities, cognitive performance improves. (‘What do you think?’)

Leon Feinstein found that educated parents are more likely to use language in this way.

Feinstein also found that educated parents are more likely to use praise which encourages their children to develop a sense of their own competence.

Question 8

Cultural deprivation, language: Cultural deprivation theorists

Answer 8

Cultural deprivation theorists see differences in how parents use language linked to social class.

Bereiter and Engelmann claim that the language used in lower class homes is deficient due to the lower class families communicating by gestures, single words or disjointed phrases.

As a result their children fail to develop the necessary language skills. So, they are unable to take advantage of the opportunities that school offer.

Question 9

Cultural deprivation, language: Speech codes

Answer 9

Bernstein identifies differences between the middle class and working class language that influences achievement: the restricted code & the elaborate code.

The restricted code: typically used by the working class. Limited vocabulary. Short unfinished, grammatically simple sentences. Gesture or a single word. Descriptive not analytic. The restricted code is context-bound: that is, the speaker assumes that the listener shares the same set of experiences.

The elaborated code: typically used by the middle class. Wider vocabulary and based on longer, grammatically more complex sentences. Varied and abstract ideas. Context free: the speaker doesn’t assume that the listener shares the same experiences.

These speech codes give middle class an advantage and working class a disadvantage.

Elaborated code is used by teachers, textbooks, exams.

Early socialisation into the elaborated code means that middle class children are already fluent/ so they feel at home in school so more likely to succeed. By contrast, working class children, lacking the code in which schooling takes place, are likely to feel excluded and to be less successful.

Question 10

Cultural deprivation, parents education: parenting style

Answer 10

Educated parents: constant discipline, high expectations and this supports achievement by encouraging active learning and exploration

Less educated parents: harsh inconsistent discipline “doing as you are told” “behaving yourself” which prevents children from learning independence and self control, leading to poorer motivation at school and problems interacting with teachers.

Question 11

Cultural deprivation, parents education: parents behaviour

Answer 11

Educated parents: reading to their children, teaching them letters, numbers, songs, poems and nursery rhymes, painting and drawing, helping with homework and being actively involved in their schooling.
Better able to get expert advice on childrearing.

Question 12

Cultural deprivation, parents education: use of income

Answer 12

Bernstein & Young
Educated: higher incomes, more likely to buy educational toys, books, activities that encourage reasoning skills and stimulate intellectual development. Better understanding of nutrition and its importance.

Less educated: more likely to lack the above resources which means starting school without the intellectual skills needed to progress.

Question 13

What is a subculture?

Answer 13

A subculture is a group whose attitudes and values differ from those of the mainstream culture.

Question 14

What are the four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement? (Sugarman)

Answer 14

Fatalism: a belief in fate “whatever will be, will be” and there is nothing you can do to change your status.

Collectivism: valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as an individual.

Immediate gratification: seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future.

Present time orientation: seeing the present as more important than the future and so not having long term goals.

Question 15

What is compensatory education?

Answer 15

Compensatory education programmes aim to tackle the problem of cultural deprivation.

They intervene early in the socialisation process to compensate children for the deprivation they experience at home.

Eg’s:
Operation head start
Tv programme sesame street
Education action zones
Sure start

Question 16

Is cultural deprivation a myth? (Keddie)

Answer 16

• She points out that a child cannot be deprived of its own culture
• She argues that working class children are simply culturally different, not culturally deprived.
• They fail because they are put at a disadvantage by the education system that is dominated by middle class values.

Question 17

What is material deprivation?

Answer 17

The term refers to poverty and a lack of material necessities such as adequate housing and income

Question 18

Material deprivation: how can housing affect pupils achievement?

Answer 18

Poor housing can affect pupils achievement both directly and indirectly.

For example, overcrowding can have a direct affect by making it harder for the child to study and sleep due to sharing beds or bedrooms.

For example, children in crowded homes run a greater risk of accidents. Cold or damp housing can also cause ill health. Families in temporary accommodation suffer more from psychological distress, infections or accidents. Such health problems, mean more absences from schools.

Question 19

Material deprivation: how does diet and health affect pupils achievement?

Answer 19

Marilyn Howard notes that young people from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals.

This may result in more absences from school due to illness, and difficulties concentrating in class.

Question 20

Material deprivation: how does finiancial support and the cost of education affect pupils achievement?

Answer 20

Lack of financial support means that children from poor families have to do without equipment and miss out on experiences that would enhance their educational achievement.

David Bull refers to this as ‘the costs of free schooling.’

Question 21

Material Deprivation: Financial support, Emily Tanner et al

Answer 21

Emily Tanner et al found that cost of items such as transport, uniforms, books, computers, calculators, and sports, music and and art equipment, places a heavy burden on poor families.

Question 22

Material deprivation: why may some families who are entitled to free school meals not take up their entitlement?

Answer 22

According to Flaherty, its due to fear of stigmatisation.

20% do not take the offer.

“people who got free school meals were teased… i couldn’t handle that as i was already getting teased enough, so i don’t get free school meals”

Question 23

Material Deprivation: Fear of Debt, attitudes towards university

Answer 23

Going to university usually involves getting into debt to cover the costs of tuition fees, books and living expenses.

This may deter working class students.

Nationwide questionnaire survey: nearly 2,000 prospective students, working class students are more debt averse.

Question 24

Material deprivation: Fear of debt, going to university

Answer 24

Though working class students who do go to university are likely to receive less financial support from their families.

A National Union of students online survey of 3,863 university students found that 81% of those from the highest social class received help from home, as against only 43% of those from the lowest class.

• 16.6% drop out at London Metropolitan University who have a large WK intake
• 1.5% at Oxford where nearly half intake come from private schools.

Question 25

Bordieu’s 3 types of capital: What is cultural capital?

Answer 25

Cultural capital refers to the knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the middle class.

To Bourdieu, middle class culture is a type of capital, because like wealth, it gives an advantage to those who possess it.

Question 26

What does Bordeiu identify as the 3 types of capital?

Answer 26

Economic, educational and cultural capital

Question 27

Bordeiu’s 3 types of capital: what is educational & economic capital?

Answer 27

Bordieu argues that educational, economic and cultural capital can be converted into one another.

• MC children with cultural capital are better equipped to meet school’s demands
• Wealthier parents can convert their economic capital into educational capital by sending their children to private schools and paying for extra tuition.

Question 28

What is labelling?

Answer 28

To label someone is to attach a meaning or definition to them. For example, teachers may label a pupil as bright or thick, troublemaker or hardworking.

Question 29

Labelling: Howard Becker

Answer 29

Becker carried out an important interactionist study of labelling.

• He interviewed 50 Chicago high school teachers
• He found that they judged pupils according to how closely they fitted an image of the ‘ideal pupil’
• Pupil’s work, conduct and appearance were key factors influencing teachers judgements.
  -Children from MC backgrounds closest to ideal pupil.

Question 30

Labelling: Amelia Jorgensen

Answer 30

In a largely WC primary school, ideal pupil was defined as quiet, passive, obedient- defined by behaviour & not ability.

by contrast, mainly MC primary school, pupil was defined in terms or personality and academic ability.

Question 31

Labelling: labelling in secondary schools, Dunne & Gazeley

Answer 31

Dunne and Gazeley argue that schools persistently produce working class underachievement because of labelling and assumptions of teachers.

• interviews shown that teachers normalised the underachievement of WK pupils, they were unconcerned
• they labelled WK pupils parents as uninterested in their children’s education, labelled MC parents as supportive
• this led to class differences in how teachers dealt with children who were underachieving
• teachers underestimated WK potential

Question 32

Labelling: labelling in primary schools, Ray Rist

Answer 32

• He found that the teacher used info about the child’s home background and appearance to place them in separate groups
• Those the teacher decided were fast learners were labelled as “tigers” which tended to be MC with a neat appearance
• The other two groups were WK, labelled as “cardinals” & “clowns” they were given lower level books and few chances to show abilities.

Question 33

What is a self fulfilling prophecy?

Answer 33

A self fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true simply by virtue of it having been made.

Question 34

What are the steps to a self fulfilling prophecy including labelling?

Answer 34

Step 1: Teacher labels a pupil, and on the basis of a label, makes predictions about him.

Step 2: The teacher treats the pupil accordingly, acting as if the prediction is already true.

Step 3: The pupil internalises the teachers expectation, which becomes part of his self concept or self image, so that he now actually becomes the kind of pupil the teacher believed him to be in the first place.

Question 35

Self fulfilling prophecy: Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study.

Answer 35

• falsely told teachers they were doing a test to identify pupils who would “spurt”
  -tested the children
  -picked 20% random children and told the school again, falsely, that the test had identified the children as spurters
  -when returning a year later, 47% of the spurters had made significant progress
  -the effect was greater on younger children

Rosenthal and Jacobson suggest that the teachers beliefs about the pupils had influenced the test results.

The teachers had then conveyed these beliefs to the pupils through body language and amount of attention and encouragement they gave them.

The study’s findings illustrate an important interactionist principle: that what people believe to be true will have real effects - even if the belief was not true originally

Question 36

What is streaming?

Answer 36

Streaming involves separating children into different ability groups or classes called “streams”

Each ability group is taught separately from the others for all subjects.

Question 37

Streaming: Self fulfilling prophecy & social class

Answer 37

Working class are more likely to be placed in lower streams.

Children in the lower streams ‘get the message’ that their teachers have written them off as no-hopers.

This creates a self fulfilling prophecy where children will live up to teachers expectations.

Douglas found that children placed in a lower streams at age 8 had suffered a decline in their IQ score by age 11.

Question 38

What is the Educational Triage?

Answer 38

Gilborn and Youdell argue that schools perform a triage (like nurses at A and E) categorising pupils into those who will achieve anyway (and therefore don’t require too much input), hopeless cases (who would be a waste of effort) and borderline cases who require attention and input to get their 5 Cs at GCSE.

Question 39

What is a pupil subculture?

Answer 39

A pupil subculture is a group of pupils who share similar values and behaviour patterns.

they often emerge as a response to the way pupils have been labelled, and in a particular as a reaction to streaming.

Question 40

What is Colin Lacey’s concept of differentiation?

Answer 40

Differentiation is when teachers group students by ability, attitude, or behavior. Streaming is a type of grouping, where students are put into different classes. “More able” students are placed in higher groups, while “less able” students are put in lower ones.

Question 41

What is Colin Lacey’s concept of polarisation?

Answer 41

Polarisation happens when students react to streaming by shifting to one of two extremes. In his study of Hightown boys’ grammar school, Lacey found that streaming led boys to form either a pro-school or anti-school group.

Question 42

the pro school subculture vs the anti-school subculture

Answer 42

pro school: pupils placed in high streams (largely mc) gain their status in the approved manner, academic success.

anti school: pupils placed in lower schools (largely wk) suffer a loss of self esteem. pushes them to look for alternatives to gain status.

Question 43

What happened when school abolished streaming?

Answer 43

Stephen Ball found that when schools abolished banding, the basis for pupils to polarise into subcultures was largely removed and the influence of the anti school subculture declined.

Question 44

Labelling: Criticisms

Answer 44

-Accused of determinism. pupils who are labelled have no choice but to fulfil the prophecy and will inevitably fail. Mary Fuller shows that this is not always true.
-Marxists: labelling theory tends to blame teachers for labelling pupils but fails to explain why they do so.

Question 45

Pupils class identities and the school: what is habitus?

Answer 45

Habitus refers to the habits, attitudes, and ways of thinking shared by a social class. It includes their tastes in things like fashion and leisure, their outlook on life, and what they see as normal for people like them. A group’s habitus develops based on its place in the class system.

Question 46

What is symbolic capital and symbolic violence?

Answer 46

Schools have a middle-class way of thinking (habitus), so students raised with middle-class tastes and habits gain status and are seen as valuable.

The school devalues working-class habits, considering their tastes (like clothing and accent) as inferior.

Bourdieu calls this unfair treatment “symbolic violence,” which reinforces the class system by keeping the working class in a lower position.

This creates a clash. As a result, working-class students may feel like education is strange and uncomfortable.

Question 47

Symbolic capital & violence: Archer

Answer 47

Archer found that these students felt they had to change how they spoke and acted to succeed in school. Many working-class students feel that succeeding in education means losing their identity, and they often see higher education and professional careers as “not for people like us.”

Question 48

What are Nike identities?

Answer 48

Investing heavily in ‘styles’ especially through consuming branded clothing such as Nike.

The right appearance earned symbolic capital and approval from peer groups and brought safety from bullying.

Question 49

Nike identities: Archer et al

Answer 49

Working-class pupils’ investment in ‘Nike’ identities is not only a cause of their educational marginalisation by the school; it also expresses their positive preference for a particular lifestyle.

As a result, working-class pupils may choose self-elimination or self-exclusion from education because it does not fit in with their identity or way of life.

Question 50

Ethnic differences in education: Cultural deprivation

Answer 50

Cultural deprivation theorists 3 main aspects:
- intellectual and linguistic skills
- attitudes and values
- family structure and parental support

Question 51

Ethnic differences in achievement, Cultural deprivation: Intellectual and linguistic skills

Answer 51

• Theorists argue that many children from low income black families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experiences.

As a result they are poorly equipped for school, lack of reasoning and problem solving skills.

Question 52

Ethnic differences in educational achievement, cultural deprivation: Bereiter and Engelmann

Answer 52

Language spoken by low income black american families as inadequate for educational success.

Children who do not speak english at home may be held back educationally.

Question 53

Ethnic differences in achievement, cultural deprivation: Attitudes and values

Answer 53

Cultural deprivation theorists argue, some black children are socialised into a subculture that instils a fatalistic, ‘live for today’ attitude that does not value education and leaves them unequipped for success.

Question 54

Ethnic differences in achievement: Family structure and parental support

Answer 54

Cultural deprivation theorists argue that this failure to socialise children adequately is the result of a dysfunctional family structure.

Daniel Moynihan (1965) argues that because many black families are headed by a lone mother, their children are deprived of adequate care because she has to struggle financially in the absence of a male breadwinner. The father’s absence also means that boys lack an adequate role model of male achievement.

Question 55

Ethnic differences in achievement: family structure and parental support, New Right perspective

Answer 55

Charles Murray (1984) argues that a high rate of lone parenthood and a lack of positive male role models lead to the underachievement of some minorities.

Roger Scruton (1986) sees the low achievement levels of some ethnic minorities as resulting from a failure to embrace mainstream British culture.

Pryce claims that Asians are higher achievers because their culture is more resistant to racism and gives them a greater sense of self-worth. He argues, black Caribbean culture is less cohesive and less resistant to racism.

As a result, many black pupils have low self-esteem and underachieve.

This could be because of the differing impact of colonialism on the two groups.

Question 56

Sewell: fathers, gangs and culture

Answer 56

Tony Sewell argues that it is not the absence of fathers as role models that leads to black boys underachieving.

Sewell sees the problem as a lack of fatherly nurturing or ‘tough love’ which results in black boys finding it hard to overcome the emotional and behavioural difficulties of adolescence.

In the absence of the restraining influence of a nurturing father, street gangs of other fatherless boys offer black boys
‘perverse loyalty and love’

Many black boys are then subject to powerful anti-educational peer group pressure.

Sewell concludes that black children - particularly the boys - need to have greater expectations placed on them to raise their aspirations.

Question 57

Ethnic differences in achievement, cultural deprivation: Criticisms

Answer 57

• Geoffrey Driver criticises cultural deprivation theory for ignoring the positive effects of ethnicity on achievement. Black Caribbean families provides girls with positive role models of strong independent women.
• Errol Lawrence (1982) argues that black pupils under-achieve not because of low self-esteem, but because of racism.
• Keddie sees cultural deprivation as a victim-blaming explanation. ethnic minority children are culturally different, not culturally deprived.

Question 58

What does Mary Fuller say about labelling?

Answer 58

Fuller describes how, instead of accepting negative stereotypes of themselves, the girls channelled their anger about being labelled into the pursuit of educational success.

Question 59

What does Mirza identify as the three main types of teacher racism?

Answer 59

• The colour-blind: teachers who believe all pupils are equal but in practice allow racism to go unchallenged.

• The liberal chauvinists: teachers who believe black pupils are culturally deprived and who have low expectations of them.

• The overt racists: teachers who believe blacks are inferior and actively discriminate against them.

Question 60

what is the critical race theory?

Answer 60

Critical race theory sees racism as an ingrained feature of society.

This means that it involves not just the intentional actions of individuals but, more importantly, institutional racism.

Question 61

Gillborn on marketisation and segregation

Answer 61

Gillborn argues that because marketisation gives schools more scope to select pupils, it allows negative stereotypes to influence decisions about school admissions

Question 62

What is the ethnocentric curriculum?

Answer 62

It describes an attitude or policy that gives priority to the culture and viewpoint of one particular ethnic group, while disregarding others.

examples include:
- Languages, literature and music: Miriam David describes the National Curriculum as a ‘specifically British’ curriculum that largely ignores non-European languages, literature and music.

• History Ball (1994) criticises the National Curriculum for ignoring ethnic diversity and for promoting an attitude of ‘little Englandism’

Question 63

Indians and chinese achievement

Answer 63

-Critics of institutional racism in education highlight the success of ‘model minorities’ (e.g., Indian and Chinese students) as evidence against systemic racism.

-They argue that if these groups perform well, it challenges the claim of racism within the education system.

-Gillborn (2008) responds by saying that the image of ‘model minorities’ serves an ideological purpose.

-This portrayal hides the reality of institutional racism by diverting attention from the underachievement of other groups, like black boys.

Question 64

What are examples of the external factors that affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 64

• Changes in the family
• Changes in women’s employment
• Girls changing ambitions

Question 65

What are some examples of changes in the family since 1970 due to feminism?

Answer 65

• an increase in the divorce rate
• an increase in cohabitation and a decrease in the number of first marriages
• an increase in the number of lone-parent families
• smaller families.

Question 66

What are some examples of changes in women’s employment in recent decades?

Answer 66

• The 1970 Equal Pay Act makes it illegal to pay women less than men for work of equal value, and the 1975 Sex Discrimination Act outlaws discrimination at work.
• Since 1975, the pay gap between men and women has halved from 30% to 15%.
• The proportion of women in employment has risen from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013. The growth of the service sector and flexible part-time work has offered opportunities for women.
• Some women are now breaking through the ‘glass ceiling’ - the invisible barrier that keeps them out of high-level professional and managerial jobs.

Question 67

Girls changing ambitions: Sue sharpe

Answer 67

Sue Sharpe’s (1994) interviews reveal a significant shift in girls’ perspectives on their futures between the 1970s and 1990s.

In 1974, girls had low aspirations, viewing educational success as unfeminine and prioritizing love, marriage, and family over careers.

By the 1990s, girls’ ambitions had changed, with careers and financial independence becoming more important.

Sharpe found that girls in the 1990s were more focused on supporting themselves and achieving career success than in earlier decades.

Question 68

how does class, gender and ambition affect girls and achievement?

Answer 68

• Class differences influence how much girls’ ambitions have changed over time.
• Many working-class girls still hold traditional gender-stereotyped aspirations, such as marriage, children, and low-paid women’s work.
• Diane Reay (1998) argues that these limited aspirations reflect the girls’ class position and their perception of limited job opportunities
• For working-class girls, traditional gender roles, like being part of a couple, offer attainable status.
• Biggart (2002) found that working-class girls often face a precarious labor market, seeing motherhood as their only viable option, which discourages them from pursuing educational success.
• In Fuller’s study, low-aspiring working-class girls showed little interest in continuing education and aimed for low-level jobs.

Question 69

What are the internal factors that affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 69

• Equal opportunity policies
• Positive role models in schools
• GCSE and coursework
• Teacher attention
• Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
• Selection and league tables

Question 70

Internal factors for gender achievement: Equal opportunities

Answer 70

• policies such as GIST and WISE encourage girls to pursue careers in non traditional areas
• introduction to the national curriculum in 1988: making girls and boys study mostly the same subjects
• Jo Boaler sees the impact of equal opportunities policies a key reason for the changes in girls achievement

Question 71

Internal factors for gender achievement: Positive role models in schools

Answer 71

There has been an increase in the proportion of female teachers and heads acting as role models for girls.

Question 72

Internal factors for gender achievement: GCSE and Coursework

Answer 72

• Stephen Gorard (2005) found that the gender gap in achievement remained stable from 1975 to 1989 but widened sharply with the introduction of GCSEs and coursework in 1989.
• Godard argues that this gap is due to the change in the assessment system, not a general failing of boys.
• Eirene Mitsos and Ken Browne (1998) support this view, stating that girls perform better in coursework because they are more conscientious and organized.

Girls tend to:
• Spend more time on their work
• Take greater care in presentation
• Meet deadlines more effectively
• Bring the correct equipment and materials to lessons.

Question 73

Internal factors for gender achievement: teacher attention

Answer 73

• Boys receive more attention in class due to reprimands (French, 1993) but are disciplined more harshly and feel picked on (Francis, 2001).
• Swann (1998) found boys dominate class discussions, while girls prefer group work and are better listeners.
• Teachers see girls as more cooperative and respond more positively to them, potentially boosting their self-esteem and achievement.

Question 74

Internal factors for gender achievement: challenging stereotypes in the curriculum

Answer 74

• Some sociologists argue that the removal of gender stereotypes from learning materials has helped boost girls’ achievement.
• Research from the 1970s and 80s showed textbooks often portrayed women in traditional roles, like housewives, or as less capable in subjects like science and math.
• Gaby Weiner (1995) notes that since the 1980s, teachers have challenged these stereotypes, and sexist images have been largely removed from educational materials.
• This shift may have contributed to raising girls’ achievement by offering more positive representations of women’s capabilities.

Question 75

Internal factors for gender achievement: selection of league tables

Answer 75

• Marketisation policies have made schools more competitive, leading them to favor girls as recruits because they tend to achieve better exam results.
• David Jackson (1998) argues that exam league tables have improved opportunities for girls, as high-achieving girls are more attractive to schools, while low-achieving boys are not.
• This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy: girls are more likely to be recruited by good schools and thus perform well.
• Roger Slee (1998) suggests boys are less desirable due to their higher likelihood of behavioral issues and exclusions, making them “liability students” who hinder a school’s league table performance.

Question 76

What is the Liberal feminist view of girls achievement?

Answer 76

• Liberal feminists celebrate progress in girls’ achievement and advocate for equal opportunities, positive role models, and addressing sexism to further advance success.
• This perspective aligns with functionalists, who view education as a meritocracy offering equal chances for all.

Question 77

What is the Liberal feminist view of girls achievement?

Answer 77

• Liberal feminists celebrate progress in girls’ achievement and advocate for equal opportunities, positive role models, and addressing sexism to further advance success.
• This perspective aligns with functionalists, who view education as a meritocracy offering equal chances for all.

Question 78

What is the radical feminist view of girls achievement?

Answer 78

Radical feminists adopt a critical perspective, acknowledging girls’ increased achievement but arguing that the education system remains patriarchal and reinforces male dominance.

They highlight ongoing issues, such as:
• Persistent sexual harassment of girls in schools.
• Limited subject choices and career options for girls.
• A higher likelihood of male teachers becoming heads of secondary schools despite more female head teachers.
• Women’s contributions, particularly in history, being largely ignored, with Weiner (1993) describing the curriculum as a “woman-free zone.”

Question 79

what is Archer’s explanation for the conflict between working class girls?

Answer 79

In her study, she found that while the girls gained symbolic capital from their peers by embracing their working-class identities, this often conflicted with the school’s expectations, hindering their ability to gain educational (qualifications) and economic capital (middle-class careers).

Archer identified strategies the girls used to create a valued sense of self, including adopting a hyper-heterosexual identity, having boyfriends, and being “loud.”

Question 80

What are hyper-heterosexual feminine identities and their effects on working-class girls in school?

Answer 80

• Working-class girls create ‘glamorous’ hyper-heterosexual identities through style and makeup, gaining peer status.
• This focus on appearance leads to conflict with school, resulting in punishments for inappropriate attire.
• Teachers see these identities as distractions, leading to the ‘othering’ of girls, who are viewed as incapable of success.
• Bourdieu refers to this as symbolic violence, where their culture is devalued and they are denied symbolic capital.
• The ‘ideal female pupil’ is a de-sexualized, middle-class identity, excluding many working-class girls.

Question 81

How do boyfriends impact working-class girls’ aspirations and education?

Answer 81

• Having a boyfriend provides symbolic capital but can negatively affect schoolwork and aspirations.
• Girls may lose interest in attending university, studying ‘masculine’ subjects (e.g., science), or pursuing professional careers.
• Aspirations often shift towards settling down, having children, and working locally in feminine jobs (e.g., childcare).
• Example: One girl had to drop out of school after becoming pregnant.

Question 82

How do ‘loud’ feminine identities affect working-class girls in school?

Answer 82

• Some working-class girls adopt ‘loud’ identities, making them outspoken, independent, and assertive (e.g., questioning teachers).
• This behavior conflicts with the school’s stereotype of the ideal female pupil, which is passive and submissive.
• Teachers often misinterpret this assertiveness as aggression, leading to conflict with authority.

Question 83

How do ‘loud’ feminine identities affect working-class girls in school?

Answer 83

• Some working-class girls adopt ‘loud’ identities, making them outspoken, independent, and assertive (e.g., questioning teachers).
• This behavior conflicts with the school’s stereotype of the ideal female pupil, which is passive and submissive.
• Teachers often misinterpret this assertiveness as aggression, leading to conflict with authority.

Question 84

What is the working-class girls’ dilemma in education?

Answer 84

• Working-class girls face a choice between:
- Gaining symbolic capital by adopting a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity and fitting in with peers.

• Gaining educational capital by rejecting their working-class identity and conforming to the school’s middle-class ideals.
• Some girls cope by defining themselves as ‘good underneath,’ despite negative perceptions.
• Archer argues that the conflict between working-class feminine identities and educational success is a key factor in their underachievement.