EDU220: Final Exam Flashcards
Cognitive science
The interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge creation and the brain
Cognition=operation of a very complex but coordinated system of diff components of memory interacting quickly and at the same time
Cognitive vs behavioral views of assumptions of what is learned
Cog view: knowledge and strategies are learned, and changes in these areas make changes in behavior possible
Behavioral view: new behaviors themselves are learned
Behavioral vs cog view of reinforcement
Behavioral view: reinforcement strengthens responses
Cog view: reinforcement= source of info about what is likely to happen if behaviors are repeated or changed
Cog view of learning
Extending/transforming understanding that we already have (not just writing associations on blank slates of our brains)
Actively make decisions to pursue learning goals
Construction of knowledge stressed (not acquisition)
Cognitive view of learning
A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge
Generally agreed upon
Learning=active mental process
Goals of behavioral researchers vs cog psychologists
Behavioral: Identify general laws of learning that apply to all higher organisms (no matter what age, intelligence, etc)
Cog: wide range of learning situations; focus on individual and developmental riffs in cognition (no single cog model created that explains entire field for this reason)
Importance of knowledge in cog approach
Most important elements in learning process=how learner carries previous knowledge into new situations
Frame/base of knowledge=what we already know
Knowledge determines what we will pay attention to, learn, forget, etc
Domain-specific knowledge vs general knowledge
Cog perspective
Domain specific knowledge=specific to a certain task or subject
General knowledge=general cog skills that apply to diff situations and subjects
Need both to be successful**
Cog view of memory; old model
Most common theories of memory=info processing theories
Early info processing views= brain is like a computer; but only works as a metaphor for human mental activity
Old model: input flows into sense-specific streams, gets encoded, moved to short term memory which holds it for a short time/mixes it with info from long term memory and with effort, moves info into long term memory storage
Short term memory=generates responses and output
Helpful model but incomplete
-couldn’t explain how how knowledge/memories outside your awareness could influence learning
-how diff cog processes can run at the same time
Recent cog science info processing model
Keeps some parts of old model
Emphasizes role of working memory, attention, and interaction among elements of the system
Steps:
1- info encoded in sensory memory (perception and attention decide what will stay in working memory)
2- in working memory->executive processes control flow of info and mix new info with old knowledge from long term memory (becomes part of working memory when activated)
3- implicit memories are formed without conscious effort
4- long term memory, working memory and sensory memory work together to guide perception, interpret info, construct knowledge, solve problems, etc
5- attention has a role in all three memory processes
Sensory memory
Initial processing that transforms incoming stimuli from the enviro into info so we can make sense of them Other names: Sensory buffer Iconic memory (images) Echoic memory (sounds)
Capacity, duration and contents of sensory memory
Capacity: very large
Duration: lasts less than 3 seconds (and a bit after the stimulus is gone)
Contents: takes in more info than we can handle at once
Attention
Focus on a stimulus Affected by: -the 3 memory processes -what we already know -what we need to know -what else is happening -type and complexity of task -resources brought to situation -ability to control/focus your attention
Automaticity
Result of learning to perform a behaviour or thinking process so thoroughly that the performance is automatic and does not require effort; sometimes refers to excitement or stress
Not black and white; works on a continuum
Never completely automatic
Two types of multitasking
Sequential multitasking: focusing on only one task at a time but switching back and forth between them
Simultaneous multitasking: overlapping focus on several things at a time
Three types of tasks (attention)
Resource-limited tasks: performance on these tasks will get better if we use more resources (don’t multitask)
Data-limited tasks: successful processing depends on amount and quality of available data; ex: if you can’t hear the lecture or too many unfamiliar vocab words used=attention won’t help
Automated task: doesn’t require much attention
Working memory
Where new info is held temporarily and combined with knowledge from long term memory to solve problems or understand a lecture etc
Limited capacity
Some psychologists believe it’s synonymous with consciousness
Short-term memory
Component of memory system that holds info for about 15-20 seconds
5 to 9 item limit (can be overcome with strategies like grouping or chunking)
Baddley’s 4 components of working memory:
1- central executive (controls attention/ other mental resources aka worker of working memory)
2- visuospatial sketch pad (visual and spatial info)
3- phonological loop (verbal and sound info)
4- episodic buffer (integrates info from other three together to create representations)
Central executive
Part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources
Phonological loop
Part of working memory
Speech and sound related system
Holds and rehearses/refreshes words and sounds in short term memory for about 1.5-2 seconds
Visuospatial sketch pad
Part of working memory
Holding system for visual and spatial info
Episodic buffer
Process that brings together and integrates info from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad, and long term memory under the supervision of the central executive
Duration and contents of working memory
Duration: 5-20 seconds
Contents: sounds and images that resemble representations in sensory memory
Info structured abstractly based on meaning
Cognitive load
Volume of resources necessary to complete a task
Intrinsic vs extraneous vs Germane cognitive load
Intrinsic: resources required by task itself, regardless of other stimuli; unavoidable, brain can only process 2-4 bits of new info at a time
Extraneous: resources required to process stimuli not relevant to the task (ex: figuring out badly organized textbook, getting your roommate to stop interrupting you etc); unhelpful
Germane: deep processing of info related to task including application of prior knowledge to a new task or problem; most valuable as its directly related to high quality learning
Two types of rehearsal that helps keep information activated in memory
1- maintenance rehearsal: repeating info in phonological loop or refreshing info in visuospatial sketch pad; repeating info to yourself to keep info in working memory
2- elaborating rehearsal: connecting info you’re trying to remember with something you already know (knowledge from long term memory)
Chunking
Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units
Two ways that info is lost from working memory
Interference: processing new info gets confused with old info
Decay: weakening and fading of memory with the passage of time
Three basic aspects of memory
1- memory span or amount of info that can held in working/short term memory 2- memory processing efficiency 3- speed of processing **act together and influence each other **speed gets faster as kids get older
Why do young kids have slower memory processing?
Fewer strategies and less knowledge
As they get older, they develop more strategies
Age 5/6: rehearsal
Age 6: organizational strategies
Age 9/10: use these strategies spontaneously
Later childhood: elaboration
10-11: adult like memories
Growth in working memory is related to…
Reading abilities and reading comprehension Academic achievement Math computation Solving complex word problems Scores on iq tests
Problems with working memory are associated with:
-reading disabilities
Long term memory
Holds well-learned info Capacity: unlimited Duration: permanent Access: required time and effort Contents: declarative, procedural and self regulatory
Three contents of long term memory
1- declarative knowledge: verbal info and facts; “knowing that” something is the case
2- procedural knowledge: knowledge that is shown when we perform a task; “knowing how”
3- self regulatory knowledge: knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how/when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge (aka conditional knowledge)
Two categories of long term memory
Explicit memory: knowledge that can be recalled and consciously considered
Implicit: not conscious of, influences behaviour and thought without our awareness
Two types of explicit memories
Semantic memory: meaning (also declarative memory)
Episodic: based on sequence of events
Propositional network (explicit memory)
Set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long term knowledge is held
3 subdivisions of implicit memory
1- classical conditioning effects (conditioned emotional reactions)
2- procedural memory (motor skills, habits, tacit rules)
3- priming (implicit activation of concepts in long term memory)
Images
Representations based on physical attributes of info
Stored as pictures or propositions converted to pictures in working memory?
Dual coding theory
Suggests that info is stored in long term memory as either visual images or verbal units, or both
This info=easiest to learn
Concept
Category used to group similar objects, events, ideas or people
Defining attributes
Qualities that connect members of a group to a certain concept
First believed to be what we used to make concepts in our heads
Challenged because not every concept includes things with same attributes
Prototype
Best example or best representative of a category
Current theory of how we create concepts
Exemplar
Actual memory of a specific object
Theory-based
An explanation for concept formation that suggests our classifications are based on ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things
Simplicity principle
Final aspect of concept formation
When humans are confronted with examples, they induce the simplest category or rule that would cover all the examples
Schemas
Complex knowledge
Basic structures for organizing info and concepts
Organize vast amounts of info
Story grammar
A type of schema that helps students remember stories and understand them
Includes a specific organizational structure
Episodic memory
Long term memory for info tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of events in a person’s life
Flashbulb memories
How are flashbulb memories created?
Under stress, more glucose energy goes to fuel brain activity while stress induced hormones signal the brain that something important is happening
Three kinds of implicit/out of awareness memories
1- classical conditioning: some implicit memories can cause you to feel anxious as you take a test or make your heart rate increase when you hear a siren
2- procedural memory: long term memory for how to do things (productions=contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take given certain situations; scripts=schema or expected plan for sequence of steps in a common event like ordering pizza)
3-priming: activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another
Elaboration
Memory strategy
Adding meaning to new info by connecting with already existing knowledge
Change existing knowledge in the process
Form of rehearsal so easier to remember later
Builds extra links to existing knowledge
Organization
Memory strategy
Material that’s well-organized=easier to learn and to remember than random bits and pieces
Ex: chunking
Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning (three ideas)
1- dual coding: visual and verbal info=processed in diff systems
2- limited capacity: working memory for verbal and visual material is severely limited; cognitive load has to be managed
3- generative learning: meaningful learning happens when students focus on relevant info and generate/build connections
How can one build complex understandings that integrate info from visual and verbal sources, given the limitations of working memory?
Make sure the info is available at the same time or in focused small bits
Context
Memory strategy
Aspects of physical/emotional context are learned along with other info
Levels of processing theory
Alternative to short/long-term memory models
Recall of info is based on how deeply it is processed
Spreading activation
Retrieval of pieces of info based on their relatedness to one another
Remembering one bit of info activates recall of associated info
Retrieval
Process of searching for and finding info in long term memory
Reconstruction
Recreating info by using memories, expectations, logic and existing knowledge
Mnemonics
Systematic procedures for improving memory; make learning meaningful
Loci method
Technique of associating items that you want to remember with specific places (mnemonics)
Chain mnemonics
Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element and so on
Keyword method
System of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images
Recode
Relate
Retrieve
Rote memorization
Remembering info by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the info
Serial-position effect
The tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of the list
Part learning
Breaking a list of items into shorter lists
Helps prevent serial-position effect
Distributed practice vs massed practice
Practice over a period of time with rest intervals=distributed practice
Practice for a single extended period=mass practice
Automated basic skills
Skills that are applied without conscious thought
Three stages in the development of an automated basic skill
1- cognitive stage: when first learning, we rely on declarative knowledge and general problem solving strategies to accomplish our goal; cognitive load on working memory=heavy, learn by trial and error
2- associative stage: individual steps of a procedure are chunked into larger units
3- autonomous stage: whole procedure is accomplished without much attention
How can teachers help students pass through the three stages to create automated basic skills?
Prerequisite knowledge
Practice with feedback
Productions
Contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take depending on the specific conditions
Domain specific strategies
Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem
Requires many opportunities for practices
Executive control processes
Processes such as selective attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization that influence encoding, storage, and retrieval of info in memory
Meta cognition
Knowledge about our own thinking processes
Meta cognition includes three types of knowledge
1- declarative knowledge
2- procedural knowledge
3- self regulatory knowledge
Three essential skills of meta cognition
Planning
Monitoring
Evaluating
KWL strategy for meta cognition
K: what do I already KNOW about this subject?
W: what do I WANT to know?
L: at the end of the reading, what have I LEARNED?
Learning strategies
A special kind of procedural knowledge
Knowing HOW to approach learning tasks
Can be cognitive, meta cognitive or behavioural
How to underline or highlight effectively
Be selective and limit how much is highlighted (one sentence per paragraph)
Actively put info into your own words as you take notes
Note connections
Draw diagrams
Look for organizational patterns in readings
Concept map
Drawing that charts the relationships among ideas
Cmaps
Tools for concept mapping developed by the institute for human and machine cognition that are connected to many knowledge maps and other resources on the Internet
READS strategy for reading comprehension
R: reviews headings E: examine bold words A: ask what you expect to learn D: do it! Read S: summarize in your own words
CAPS strategy for reading literature
C: who are the characters?
A: aim of the story?
P: problem?
S: solution of the problem?
Production deficiencies
Where students learn strategies but don’t apply them when they could or should
Especially prominent in kids with learning disabilities
Control of meta cognitive strategies=underdeveloped
Conditions that ensure students will use the strategies they learn
- learning task must be appropriate
- students have to care about learning/understanding
- students must believe that the effort/investment required to apply the strategies is reasonable
- must have base of knowledge to work off of
LINCS vocab strategy
Strategy that uses stories and imagery to help students learn how to identify, organize, define and remember words and their meanings
Learning Strategies Curriculum
L: list the parts of the word and key info
I: identify a reminding word
N: note a LINCing story (story that connects vocab word with the known word)
C: create a LINCing picture (draw a picture that represents the story)
S: self test
Problem
Has an initial state, goal and path for reaching the goal
Must reach subgoals along the way
Problem solving
Formulating new answers, going beyond the simple application of previously learned rules to achieve a goal
Debate: does problem solving require subject-specific or general problem solving strategies? Both needed !!
How to properly represent a problem and set goals
1- focus attention on what is relevant
2- understanding the words
3- understanding the whole problem
How can students who lack a good base of knowledge improve their translation and schema selection?
- direct instruction in schemas
- worked examples that reflect all stages of problem solving
Expert reversal effect
Worked on examples can interfere with learning of more expert students
Opposite with new students
Mayer’s 3 ways that students can develop Schemas necessary to represent problems in a specific subject area
Practice in…
1- recognizing/categorizing a variety of problem types
2- representing problems with different media
3- selecting relevant and irrelevant info in problems
Schema-driven problem solving
Recognizing a problem as a “disguised” version of an old problem for which one already has a solution
Possible solution strategies
Algorithm (step by step procedure for solving a problem; a prescription for solutions)
Heuristic (general strategy used in attempt to solve problems)
Three types of heuristics
1- means ends analysis: heuristic in which a goal is divided into subgoals
2- working backwards strategy: heuristic where one starts with the goal and moves backwards to solve the problem
3- analogical thinking: heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one at hand
Verbalization
Process where you discover a solution to a problem while putting it into words
Factors that hinder problem solving
1- functional fixedness: inability to use objects or tools in a new way
2- response set: rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way
Representative heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your stereotypes of a category
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common
Belief perseverance
Tendency to hold onto beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence
Confirmation bias
Seeking info that confirms our choices and beliefs, while disconfirming evidence
Examining expert knowledge
1- know where to focus their attention
2- see deeper patterns
3- hold more info in working and long term memory bc info well organized
4- take extra time to analyze problem
5- have automatic procedures for accomplishing pieces of the problem
6- better at monitoring their performance
Critical thinking
Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution
Three examples of good critical thinking skills to teach
1- sourcing: deciding if the source is good/trustworthy/unbiased
2- corroboration: making connections between info in diff texts and comparing/contrasting
3- contextualization: imaging the time, place, people and culture that is the context of the event, with all political and social forces that may be operating
Argumentation
The process of debating a claim with someone else
Supporting your position with evidence and understanding
Refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence
Children: too much cognitive load trying to remember the other persons argument so focus on their opinion
Transfer
Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations
Can be positive or negative
The key to thoughtful transfer is…
Mindful abstraction aka deliberate identification of a principle, main idea, strategy, or procedure that is not tired to a specific problem or situation, but could apply to many
Guides future learning and problem solving
Over learning
Practising a skill past the point of mastery
Phye and Sander’s three stages in development of strategic transfer
1- acquisition phase: students are taught how to use strategy and practice using it/being aware of when and how they are using it
2- retention phase: more practice with feedback
3- transfer phase: practice solving diff problems with same strategy
5 basic assumptions of the learning sciences
1- experts have deep conceptual knowledge
2- learning comes from the learner
3- schools must create effective learning environments
4- prior knowledge is key
5- reflection is necessary to develop deep conceptual knowledge
Constructivism
View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of info
Based on work by Piaget, vygotsky, gestalt psychologists, etc
Two central ideas of constructivist theories of learning
1- learners are active in constructing their own knowledge
2- social interactions are important in this knowledge construction process
Two forms of constructivism
1- psychological constructivism: focus on how individuals use info, resources and help from others to build and improve their mental models and problem-solving strategies (also called individual and cognitive)
2- social constructivism: view learning as increasing our abilities to participate with others in activities that are meaningful in the culture
Learning sciences
An interdisciplinary science of learning based on research in psych, edu, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning
Why are the most recent information processing theories constructivist?
Because their focus is on how individuals construct internal representations
Outside world=source of input
Some psychs believe this is trivial/weak constructivism bc only constructive contribution=building accurate internal representations of the outside world
Focus of Piaget’s psychological (cognitive) constructivist perspective
Not concerned as much with “correct” representations and more concerned with meaning as constructed by the individual
Social enviro=important but not main mechanism for changing thinking (first wave constructivism; emphasis on central idea 1 aka individual meaning making)
Radical constructivism
Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong
Appropriating
Being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools
Vygotsky’s social constructivism
Emphasis=central idea 2 (social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning)
Social interaction allows learners to appropriate outcomes produced by working together
Second wave constructivism (putting learning in social/cultural contexts)
Social constructivist=vygotsky (also psychological constructivist)
Constructionism
How public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math, economics, or history is constructed
- don’t focus on individual learning
- all knowledge =socially constructed
Three explanations of how knowledge is constructed
1- realities and truths of the external world direct knowledge construction (info processing has this view)
2- internal processes such as Piaget’s organization, assimilation, and accommodation direct knowledge construction (new knowledge abstracted from old knowledge))
3- both external and internal factors direct knowledge construction (Vygotsky’s view and bandura’s theory)
Community of practice
Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true
Situated learning
The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings
Areas of agreement between all constructivist theories
- knowing develops as learners try to make sense of their experiences
- learners=active and aware of their role in constructing knowledge
- mental models and schemas constructed
- similar goals for learning (emphasize knowledge in use, learning goals=developing abilities to find/solve badly structured problems, critical thinking, inquiry, self determination and openness to many perspectives)
Five conditions for learning (constructivist approaches)
1- complex/realistic environments
2- social negotiation/shared responsibility
3- many perspectives
4- self awareness/understanding that knowledge is constructed
5- encourage ownership in learning
Complex learning environments
Problems and learning situations that mimic the badly structured nature of real life
May require scaffolding
Social negotiation
Vygotsky
Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives
Students should adopt intersubjective attitude (commitment to build shared meaning by finding common group and exchanging interpretations)
Multiple representations of content
Considering problems using various analogies, examples and metaphors
Matches idea of spiral curriculum (introduces fundamental structure of a subjects at a basic level in early school years and successfully revisits those ideas in more and more complex forms over time)
Scaffolding (constructivist approach)
Support for learning and problem solving
Could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking problems into steps, providing examples, or anything else that allows student to grow independently as a learner
Vygotsky
Zone of proximal development
Three characteristics of scaffolding
1- contingency support: teacher changes responses according to student needs
2- fading: gradually taking away the support
3- transferring responsibility: students assume more and more responsibility for own learning
Inquiry learning
Approach where teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions
Problem-based learning
Methods that provide students with realistic problems that don’t necessarily have “right” answers
Goals: develop knowledge that is useful and flexible (not inert), enhance intrinsic motivation/skills in problem solving, collaboration, decision making, etc)
Inert knowledge
Info that is memorized but rarely applied
STAR legacy cycle’s six phases (problem based learning)
1- intriguing challenge 2- generate ideas 3- multiple perspectives 4- research and revise 5- test their mettle 6- go public with final conclusion
Cognitive apprenticeship
A relationship in which a less experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert Six features: 1- modelled performance 2- external support through coaching 3- scaffolding 4- students articulate their knowledge 5- reflecting on progress 6- explore new ways of knowledge application
Reciprocal teaching
Designed to help students understand and think deeply about what they read
Students in small reading groups learn four strategies:
1- summarizing the content of a passage
2- asking a question about central point
3- clarifying difficult parts of the material
4- predicting what will come next
Three guidelines for successful reciprocal teaching
1- shift gradually: shift of responsibility from teacher to student must be gradual
2- match demands to abilities: difficulty of task/responsibility must match abilities of each student and grow as their abilities develop
3- diagnose thinking: teachers should observe students’ thinking patterns for clues
Collaboration vs cooperation
Collaboration: a philosophy about how to relate to others; how to learn and work
Cooperation: way of working with others to attain a shared goal
**cooperative learning is one way to collaborate in schools
Cooperative learning
Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals
Info processing, Vygotsky and Piaget theory’s reasons for favouring cooperative learning
Info processing theory: group discussion helps rehearse, elaborate and expand knowledge; students must organize/make connections/review=supports info processing and memory
Piagetian perspective: interactions create cognitive conflict and disequilibrium that lead someone to question his/her understanding and try out new ideas
Vygotsky theory: higher mental functions like reasoning, comprehension and critical thinking originate from social interactions; provides social support and scaffolding to help students move forward
Misuses of group learning
Enforces misconceptions
Status diffs between students can cause problems
Values process/procedures over the learning
Socializing over learning
Johnson’s five elements that define true cooperative learning groups
1- positive interdependence 2- promotive interaction 3- individual accountability 4- collaborative and social skills 5- group processing
Reciprocal questioning
Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material
Jigsaw classroom
A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group
Student=”expert” on their piece, teach it to the other people in their group
**jigsaw 2: includes tests and a team score
Structured controversy
Students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a specific controversy
Develop pro or con position
Presents position and evidence to other pair
Make final report that reaches a consensus
Cloud computing
Allows computer users to access applications like Google docs or Microsoft web mail as well as computing assets like network-accessible data storage and processing to use online applications
Virtual learning environment (VLE)
Broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual or online systems
Types of VLE’s (virtual learnings enviros)
Learning management system (LMS): most traditional VLE, large/complex/expensive, system that delivers e-learning, provides tools and learning materials, keeps records, administers assessments and manages learning
Ex: canvas :D or open-source software
Personal learning environment (PLE)
Provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations
Personal learning network (PLN)
Framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions
Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE)
A simulation of a real world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum
Provides cognitive tutors (technology programmed to act like a tutor by providing prompts after analyzing students’ response)
Massive multiplayer online games (MMOGs)
Interactive gaming enviros constructed in virtual worlds where the learner assumes a character role of avatar
Social learning theory to social cognitive theory
Social learning theory: bandura’s earlier theory; focus on observing and modelling others who were reinforced/punished for their behaviours; too limited
Social cognitive theory: included more attention to cognitive factors like expectations and beliefs in addition to social influences of models, self perceptions
Triarchic reciprocal causality
Explanation of behaviour that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the enviro on each other Three forces: Personal variables/self-influences Social influences/enviro variables Behaviours/achievement outcomes
Modelling (learning by observing others)
Key element of bandura's social cognitive theory Factors: Developmental status Model prestige and competence Consequences Outcome expectations Goal setting Self-efficacy
Elements of observational learning (social cog theory)
Attention
Retention (remembering)
Production
Motivation/reinforcement
Bandura’s three forms of reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement: observer sees someone else being reinforced for a particular behaviour and then increase their production of the same behaviour
Direct reinforcement
Self-reinforcement
Five possible outcomes of observational learning (social cognitive theory)
1- directing attention
2- fine tuning already learned behaviours
3- strengthening/weakening inhibitions (ripple effect)
4- teaching new behaviours (models of same age=extra effective)
5- arousing emotion
Ripple effect
“Contagious” spreading of behaviours through imitation
Self-efficacy
A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task (bandura)
Human agency
The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals
Self-efficacy vs self-concept vs self-esteem
Self-efficacy: future oriented; context specific assessment of competence to perform a specific task
Self concept: more global construct that contains many perceptions about the self, including self efficacy
Mastery experiences
Our own direct experiences; the most powerful source of efficacy info
Arousal
Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, excited, or tense
Bandura’s four sources of self-efficacy expectations (social cognitive theory)
1- mastery experience
2- physiological/emotional arousal
3- vicarious experiences
4- social persuasion
Three ways that students can improve their performance in school and self-efficacy
1- adopt short term goals (easier to judge progress)
2- taught to use specific learning strategies (like outlining, summarizing to help focus attention)
3- receive rewards based on achievement (not just participation)
Self-regulation
Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviours and emotions in order to reach goals
Influences on self-regulation (social cognitive theory)
Knowledge (about themselves and the subject/task)
Motivation
Volition (willpower; planning for and protecting opportunities to reach goals)
Development of self-regulation
Co-regulation vs self-regulation (social cog theory)
Co-regulation: transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate self-regulated learning and skills through modelling, direct teaching, feedback and coaching from teachers/parents/peers
Shared regulation: students working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance
The cycle of self-regulated learning (winne and hadwin)
1- analyzing the task 2- setting goals 3- devising plans 4- enacting tactics and strategies **all include regulating learning
Zimmerman’s cycle of self-regulated learning
Forethought
Performance
Reflection
Cognitive behaviour modification
Procedures based on both behavioural and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behaviour by using self-talk and self-instruction
Self-instruction
Talking yourself through the steps of a task
Motivation
Internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behaviour
Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic: motivation associated with activities that are their own reward
Extrinsic: motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments
Locus of causality
The location, whether it be internal or external, of the cause of behaviour
Behavioural approaches to motivation
Understanding motivations begins with analyzing incentives in the classroom
Incentives and rewards
Humanistic approaches to motivation
Humanistic interpretations for motivation emphasize intrinsic sources of motivation as a person’s needs for self-actualization, the inborn actualizationing tendency, or the need for self determination
Motivate=encourage persons inner resources
Cognitive approaches to motivation
Emphasize intrinsic motivation
Developed as a reaction to behavioural views
Behaviour is determined from our thinking; regulated by plans goals schemas expectations attributions
Social cognitive theories of motivation
Expectancy x value theories (explanation of motivation that emphasizes individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal)
Cost
Sociocultural views of motivation
Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice
Legitimate peripheral participation
Genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small
Three needs of the self-determination theory
Need for competence
Need for autonomy
Need for relatedness
Need for autonomy
The desire to have our own wishes determine our actions, not external rewards or pressures
Cognitive evaluation theory
Suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as controlling behaviours or providing info
All events have two aspects: controlling and informational
Four main reasons why goal setting increases performance
1- directs attention
2- energize effort
3- increase persistence
4- promote development of new knowledge/strategies when old ones fail
Goal orientations
Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school Four types: Mastery Performance Work avoidance Social
Types of goals (3)
Specific, elaborated
Moderately difficult
Likely to be reached
Two focuses of mastery and performance goal orientations
Approach focus
Avoidance focus
Three additional factors that make goal setting in the classroom effective
Feedback
Goal framing
Goal acceptance
Epistemological beliefs
Beliefs about structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned
Entity view of ability vs incremental view of ability
Entity view: Belief that ability is a fixed characteristic that cannot be changed
Incremental view: belief that ability is a set of skills that can be changed
Attribution theories
Descriptions of how individual’s explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behaviour
Three dimensions:
1- locus: location of the cause; either external or internal
2- stability: cause is same across time and in diff situations
3- controllability
Three types of deficits caused by learned helplessness
Motivational
Cognitive
Affective (depression anxiety listlessness)
Three motivational sets that bring together attributions, beliefs about ability, self efficacy and self worth
Mastery oriented
Failure avoiding
Failure accepting
Two types of interests
Personal
Situational
Motivation to learn
Tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and try to benefit from them
TARGET (six areas where teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn)
T: task that students are asked to do A: autonomy and authority R: recognition for accomplishments G: grouping practices E: evaluation procedures T: time in the classroom
Four components of task value
1- importance or attainment value: significance of doing well
2- interest or intrinsic value
3- utility value: how useful it is
4- cost
Goal structure
The way students relate to others who are also working towards a particular goal
Three characteristics of highly effective teachers
Clarity and organization
Warmth and enthusiasm
Pedagogical content knowledge (relationship greatest in math)
Lesson study aka kenshu
Collaborative lesson design method developed in Japan
Group of teachers design lesson
Video recording of one teacher teaching it
Group analyzes the recording and refines the lesson
Learning objectives
What students are intended to learn as a result of instruction
At centre of lesson design process
Three parts of planning teaching
Learning objectives
Learning activities
Learning assessment
Two purposes of learning goals and objectives
1- guide planning, development and evaluation of learning
2- orient students to purpose of what they’re learning
