Economies and their modes of production Flashcards
economic anthropology
subfield of cultural anthropology that studies economic systems cross-culturally
economic system
- production (making goods/money)
- consumption (using up goods/money)
- exchange (transfer of goods/money)
mode of production
dominant way of making a living in a culture
difference between cultural anthropology and economics
entire ways of people making a living, different methods (fieldwork, participant observation, quantitive/qualitative data) gather emic data
economic systems research
rich set of knowledge on diverse ways of making a living. categories=modes
modes of production
not only type of production, be involved in more than one, they blend/overlap, some cultures make not fit within only one mode. no correlation between types and superiority of mode
globalization
world economy. local systems are linked
intensification of global trade
global division of labour (world economy) countries compete unequally for a share of wealth
modern world economy
core (1st world countries) periphery
(2,3,4,5 world countries) and zemiperiphery (middle). linked systems, constant flow.
core
most profitable activities (high-tech service, manufacturing, financial activities) advanced, strongest government, dominant
periphery
least-profitable actives, production of raw materials, foodstuff, labour-intensive, gods, import high-tech goods and services from core. weak governments, dominate by core, disadvantaged
foraging
using food available in nature (fishing, gathering, hunting) predominant mode of production. 90% oh humans, danger of extinction (pure form) no gardens, no domesticated animals. sustainable system- untouched by outside influences, abundant land available
extensive strategy
production involving temporary use of large areas of land, high degree of spatial mobility. sustainable, regenerated. obtaining/processing foods, not extensive
division of labour
gender,age. meat-masculinity. elderly people-caring children, stay at camp. young children-help collect food. circumpolar foragers gender- no overlap. Abolish- man the hunter model
property relations
.
private property
not found in foraging societies. equal rights
use rights
invested in collective group, passed down equally to all children, members of group. property relations in which or person or group has socially recognized priority in access to particular resources (gathering, hunting, fishing) - shared with others with permission
encroaching on someones area
serious misdemeanour = violence
sustainable
crucial resources are regenerated over time in demand that population makes on them
sustainability of foraging
not pathetic or inadequate. foragers’ needs are modest. original affluent society- needs satisfied with minimal labour efforts
adaptation to seasonal fluctuations in food supply
minimize food intake during times one plenty, thinness
minimal labour efforts
satisfy needs for goods, affluent, less work time, more leisure time, storytelling, games ,resting, good health
horticulture (shifting cultivation)
sustainable system. Production based on cultivating domesticated plans in gardens using hand tools. Shifting cultivation, extensive strategy, more labour intensive. domestication of of plants and animals, crops, hand gardens with tools no human systems. Changes in plants and animals leads to greater control by humans in terms of location and reproduction. crops rotated land must fallow. produce profits=consumer goods. less population growth, government pressure. great wealth, foundation for complex and rich civilizations.
Stages in horticulture
clearing- cleared, are on fire=fertilizer
planting- loosen soil, place seeds
weeding- little weeding
harvesting- substantial labour to cut and dig crops and bring them to residential population density low
fallowing- unused for number of years= regains fertility
division of labour-horticulture
gender and age. specific roles. prestige foods cultivate prestige crops. men-clear garden, hunting and fishing, clearing and cultivating. women- food processing, plant, tend to cultivate staple crops, stable food. men higher public status than women. children active engaged, origins of different division of labour have implications for mens and women status.
women’s contribution to food production- horticulture
necessary but not sufficient for high status. do not contribute to producing= low status if they do contribute to producing=may or may not have high status
control over production
public distribution beyond the family= no control over product and distribution
children
more productive work than any other modes of production, fulfills what would be adult roles in other economic systems
property relations
use rights are important, more clearly defined and formalized. surplus goods- social inequality rules about sharing with larger group decline in importance (higher status)
fallowing
.
pastoralism
based on domestication of animal herds and use of their products (meat, milk) for atleast half (most) of their diet. trade links with foragers, horticulturalists, farmers to obtain food and goods they can’t obtain themselves. more where pasture is. many animal products. movement of animals to pasture. economy, ecology, political organization are linked within environment well endowed with resources and setter communities
ranching
moves fodder to animals, provide meat for sale
problem for pastoralism
continued need too fresh pasture for animals. extensive form of economic adaption
long-distance herding
vulnerable to raids, require negotiation with settlements for permission to cross lands. develop confederacy of tribes into centralized political organization for protection
division of labour- pastoralism
families (basic unit of production), cluster of families. gender age. little overlap. stable value on mobility. social equality is common norm. gender- clearly divided, men-herding, women-processing. culture emphasis on masculinity
size of animals- pastoralism
girls-smaller animals graze less widely, penned near house
boys- pastured farther away
children important helping roles in tending herds
property relations- pastoralism
- animals
2. housing and domestic goods (their own0
private property of animals
family head can trade for other goods
use rights
regulate pasture land and migratory routes, informal regulated through oral tradition
pastoralism as sustainable system
extremely valued environment. highly successful and sustainable economic system- complimentary with other economic systems.
sedentism
settle down. external constraint on pastoralism
agriculture (farming)
growing crops on permanent plots with ice of plowing, irrigation and fertilizer. intensive strategy. techniques same plot of land to be used without losing fertility repeatedly. substantial amount of labour (weeding, fertilizing, water supply)
domesticated animals
plowing, transportation, organic fertilizer (manure, compost)
artifice water sources
irrigation channels, terracing the land
indigenous knowledge
local knowledge of environment, plants animals and resources. displaced by others methods (declining)
occupational specialization
permanent settlemenstand, larger families, take on repairing full time, don’t grow own food, trading for food with farmers
family farming (peasant agriculture, food growing)
production support family, produce goods for sale, larger market economic system, cross-cultural variety
division of labour- family farming
gender and age. subject of much anthropological research. men-bulk, women-dominant in marketing and home, work more hours, inside and outside work
public privacy dichotomy
gender division in society that emerged with agriculture, men are more involved with non-domestic domain, women more involved in activities near home. compared to other systems men and womens hours are just as high
female farming systems
females play major role in production of family farms own land make decisions, backbone. men plow fields
wet rice agriculture
labour intensive way of growing rice- starting seedlings in nurseries and transplanting to flooded fields.
children role- family farming
prominent on minor (farm animals)
property relations-family farming
clearing, terracing, fencing- development of firmly alienated and protected property rights. rights to land can be sold and acquired
guidelines
inheritance and transfer of rights through marriage
law and police
protect private rights to resources
marked gender division of labour
men-highly valued tasks and goods. valued in outside world. dominant roles
women- food processing, family maintenance, no income or exchange value, excluded from land rights and property controls. high status
industrial agriculture
capital intensive, uses more energy, decline of family farm. produces crops through capital intensive means which machinery and purchase inputs (fertilizers for human and animal labour) machines instead of human labour, industrialized countries
corporate farms
huge agricultural enterprises that produce goods for sale owned and operated by companies on hired labour
social effects
increased use of complex technology on new plant
animal varieties
displaced of small landholders and field labourers
increased use of capital (money property)
increased production, reduce flexibility
increased use of energy grow crops
farmers dependence on global market of energy supplies
intro to genetically engineered crops
genetically altered food, selected food in the past, genetic technology
industrial collectivized agriculture
rare in cultural anthropology, industrialized tindustrialized agriculture that involves non private control of land, technology, goods produced. greater economic equality, greater sense of welfare than possible under competitive capitalism. good-consumer demand not necessary
state farms
paid wages, small garden for own use, child care facilities, shopping centres
collective farms
owned and controlled by members, earnings determined by tool farm production, lower wags
women
agricultural and reproductive labour
men
industrial
sustainability of agriculture
labour inputs, technology, non-renewable , natural resources. undermining sustainability of other systems, displacing long-standing economic systems. destruction of important habitats for agricultural land water, energy sources for support its enterprises
industrialism
production of goods through mass employment in business and commercial operations. agriculture employment decreases, manufacturing jobs increase
formal sector
salaried and wage-leased work registered in official statements. stable and lucrative jobs to unstable part time lucrative jobs
informal sector
work outside formal sector, not officially registered illegal. underground economy. less willing to be studied or organized, sense of pride less often more time. more than one enterprise (prostitution). look beyond emic worlds to global structures that generate or support the bad. child labour, childhood goods, child rights. voices views of children, people who pay for sex, poverty in children
european colonialism
dramatic effects on indigenous peoples production
western capitalism
far reaching effects on local economics with which it comes in contrast
global economy
interconnectedness of all aspects on international, transnational, rational, local economies (raw materials, labour supply, transportation, finance, marketing. electronic forms of communication, world economic power centre (sneezes rest of the world will catch a cold)
effects of economic globalization on party and inequality
national figure- beneficial
cultural anthropology- negative effects
3 negative effects
increase in commercial production in response to demands of global market
recruitment of foragers- horticulturalists, pastoralists, family farmers in work industrialized sector (exploitation)
dispossession of local people land
other resources due to growth (unemployed, displaced people)
foraging
horticultural groups become more involved in global economy on own terms. cultured destroyed by intrusion of western economic interests, local knowledge lost, people demoralized, distressed, ill, suicidal
foragers- tiwi northern australia
international recognition, actively manage supports own terms and values. before- gathered foods, hunted, comfortable life, foreign influences, fish, setlled villagers, iron, football waterloo, highly recognized. introduced western goods
now- public affair, politics, tourism
horticulturalists- munducuru of brazilian amazon
maintenance of many aspects of traditional life to complete loss of traditional life-ways
rubber plantations
combining horticultural with work on rubber farms
indians work for brazilians
migrate to rubber area year round
traditional villages
women water carrying tasks, men live seperately and visit occasionally
rubber settlement
live together, men carry water (work harder) womenwork more hours than men better because they live in the same house
pastoralist- herds of mongolia
dependent on food, money, animal herds. transformed into agricultural and industrial slate. urban population grow, rural decline, social services (health education) no homelessness or unemployment, dependence on state services, ban private ownership, collectivize heroes (negative). adjust to dramatic restructing of economy (private heading to collectivized herding back to po private herding). social services- less available, standard of living are down and herding practices part of global economy
privatization
transferring collective ownership, provision of goods ad services to system of private ownership. governments policy guideline. Collective ownership of herds (abandoned), family (organized production, reinstated)
standard of living declined, goods no longer available, prices fluctuated, market fluctuations, lower prices=less slaughtered= exceeding grassland capacity
family farmers- maya of chapas, mexico
increase in public spending. independent small family farms to dependent on wage work. before- growing corn, selling corn nearby independent of outside forces in b own terms food supply. Closely knit, social boundaries define by commitment to roles and ceremonies
now- connected with forces beyond borders, massive increase in public spending by government (foods, schools) agricultural change, crop diversification, increase production) oil boom, huge amount of cash to local economy, led to wage work, unemployment. Transformation from production for own-use to production for sale within monopolized system of trade for profit. more prosperous, monetized, dependent on outside economy. Social differentiation is higher while social solidarity is lower. raised income level, households lest access to cash=left behind (headed by a woman on her own)
risk adverse
avoid adapting new innovations
conservatism
adaptive, intimate knowledge of systems, assessing costs and benefits, decision-makers
industrialists- factory workers ohio
increased mechanization, unemployment (migrating, finding new ways to spend time) manufacture decline. stress and mental disorder increase. factory workers= place of employment is crucial, identities bound of place of employement
global capitalism- tawainese in south africa
after dismantling of apartheid, forge links with tawainese businesses to transfer economic miracle. hierarchical system (resentment) failed. tawainese industrialists separated from workers (racial, economic, social divide) focal point of local political conflict. Has not withered away. prioritize culture over nature. economic lifestyle demands less resources, more sustainable culture and nature closer together
social miracle
family based production compliance among workers (age, gender)
global incorporation
more powerfully felt in localities worldwide
plantations
grow tea, coffee, rubber, poor social welfare for workers, concentrated ownership of land, hired labour, severe inequality, dominant in former colonies
capital
wealth in the form of money or other assets owned by a person or organization or available or contributed for a particular purpose such as staring a company or investing
capitalism
economic system based on goal of profit making and organized around production for sale and involving consumption patterns satisfied through markets
consumption
using up goods for expending funds
corporate farms
companies that own or influence farms and agricultural practices on a large scale
