birth and death Flashcards
reproduction
modes of production, culture shapes fertility, culture shapes mortality
demography
study of population dynamics and his culture is dynamically shaped. ex. mortality, migration, fertility
direct and indirect means of fertility regulation
(foragers). balanced level of population
sedenterization
increase in food surpluses, more available means of storing more stable, large populations. Culminate in human history as agriculturalists
foragers
fertility control, heavy work loads, seasonality of diets- reproductive stress, longer breast-feeding, lower level of maternity fat.
agricultural societies
large families=large labour force. protonatism-key value. produces and supports larger families. rational reproductive strategy. settles agriculturalists promote and support highest fertility rates.
industrial societies
reproduction declines to level of replacement fertility. Below level. deaths outnumber births, highly stratified different fertility rates among classes, aging populations. Society does not reproduce itself. Scientific technology in pregnancy. Low fertility and low mortality- demographic transition
first variable in affecting desire for children
children labour value (positive)
2nd variable
children value as old age (positive)
3rd variable
infant and child mortality rates (positive)
4th variable
economic costs of children (negative)
modernization of mortality
deep division between mortality patterns between the rich and poor. high death rates, infant deaths
infanticide
deliberate killing of an offspring (due to child deformity, sickness, child fails to meet parental expectation, poverty)
ethnocide
destruction of culture but not necessarily people
genocide
physical extermination of a cultural group
fertility modes of production
foraging, agriculture, horticulture
demography fertility
rates of births in a population, rate of population increase in general
demography mortality
deaths in population, rate of population decline in general or from particular causes
demography mortality
movement of people from one place to another
Hindus
think that semen means strength, men weakened by sex
Chinese
believe in families only having one kid to decrease population rate
mennonites and hutterites in US and Canada
highest birth rates
population dynamics
culturally shaped, change in response to changing conditions. other aspects like gender roles, social inequality,sexual beliefs, behaviours, marriages, household structure, child care, health and illness
cultural anthropologists
look at what goes on behind the numbers, get a better insight and closer look
culture and reproduction
promote and limit reproduction growth.
construction modes of reproduction
predominant patterns of fertility in a culture
foraging
low population growth because of moderate birth rates and moderate death rates.
Sedenterization (permanent settlement)
birth rates increased over death rates, high population densities reached in agricultural societies
Industrialized model of reproduction
population growth rate decline because of falling birth rates and declining death rates
reproduction-foraging society
small number of children to facilitate movement. difficult to carry more than one infant.
ju/wasi
population homeostasis is achieved, birth intervals several years in duration due to frequent and long breast feeding and low body fat, a certain level of body fat is due for ovulation. diet and work key factors underlying ju/wasi population dynamics. having 2-3 children, 2 surviving into adulthood. giving up foraging becoming sedentarized farmers and labourers= fertility level increase
reproduction- agricultural society
highest fertility rates. having many children= rational reproductive strategy related to model of production, family planning=many children. amish/mennonites/hutterites- 8-10 children surviving into adulthood
protonatalism
ideology promoting birthing of many children, emerges as key value of farm families. need for large labour force to work the land, care for animals, process foods, marketing.
global variation in fertility in farming
exists because of decline due to reduced demands for family labour
income agriculture countries of africa
high rates of several children
south america
lowest rates of children per woman
reproduction in countries
significant variation in different regions between rural and urban areas and different ethical and class groups. ex. kilimanjaro- fertility lower than whole country, region has active family planning program. women who are better off have lower fertility= importance in womens status in shaping fertility.
north india
sons are important, crucial to work. large family= wealth an success.
reproduction- industrial society
reproduction declines to replacement level fertility. population changes. Too focused on role of industrials and not alternative models. Industrialism is only factor that produces protonatalism
replacement level fertility
number of births equals number of deaths=maintenance of current population size
Below level fertility
number of births less than number of deaths=population decline ex. canada, european countries
children
less useful in production due to reduced labour demands of industrialism. children required to attend school, cannot work for families as much= fewer children, investing in more resources
demographic transition
process of change from high fertility and high mortality in agricultural societies to low fertility and low mortality in industrialized societies.
1st phase of demographic transition
mortality decline cause of improved nutrition and health, population growth increases
2nd phase of demographic transition
fertility decline. low rate of population growth occurs
reproduction- industrial- social inequality
reflected in population patters, stratified reproduction. middle and upper class- few children and high survival rates. Poor- fertility and mortality rates are high, ex. brazil (most extreme income inequality)
population aging
entering senior category, creating population budge not balanced by number of younger people
high level of involvement of scientific (medical) technology in pregnancy
prevention, termination, becoming pregnant. increased levels of specialization in providing new services
culture and fertility
culture shapes human reproduction from very beginning, sexual intercourse and other fertilization of an ovum. cultural practices and beliefs about pregnant and birth affect viability of fetus during gestation and fate after birth
sexual intercourse
difficult to undertake, private, secret beliefs and behaviours. Biases are likely, too shy, boastful unable to answer, might be inappropriate for anthropologists to publish it to protect confidentiality. mostly study practices of sexuality related to STD, AIDS/HIV
ethics of participant observation
disallow intimidate observation and participation. Data obtained indirectly.
Beginning to have sexual intercourse
human reproduction= fertile male and fertile female
menarche
when female is fertile. onset of first menstruation (12-14).girls in rich countries reach it first. diet-activity patterns are factors of age difference. Todays diets and lifestyles= progress, early age at menarche is indicator of social well-being
menopause
when female is fertile. final cessation of menstruation (40-50). later ages in richer countries. Diet and activity level are factors. Lifetime fertility- Women with more children reach it before women with less children
children- sexual intercourse
socialize children about time to begin sexual intercourse. Differs by gender, class, race, ethnicity. Many cultures- being only wit marriage, more strict with females
intercourse frequency and fertility
wide range, confirming role of culture in shaping sexual desire
common assumption of fertility and sex
people and cultures with high fertility rates have a lot of sex, without birth control, condoms, etc. WRONG.
HINDUS
have sex less frequently and have highest fertility rates
indian culture- sex
sexual abstinence, limiting sex, abstain from sex on sacred days. one act of sex at the right time of the month= pregnancy
reverse reasoning
assuming high fertility= a lot of sex is wrong. india- restraining from sexual activities- fertility lower than it would be.
fertility decision making
family level: decision-makers weigh factors influencing why and when to have kids
national level: governments plan overall population objective on basis of particular goals that are protonatalist (favouring many births) and antinatalist (opposed to many births)
global level: powerful economic and political interests are at work influencing reproductive policies of an individual nations, families and individuals within them
Family level
Family parents and other family members consider consciously and unconsciously the value costs of children. 4 factors on affecting desire for children: childrens labour value, children value- old age support for parents, infant and child mortality rates, economic costs of children. the first three are positive on fertility and the last one is negative because it reduces desire for children.
industrialism
raises child costs, lowers value dramatically, avoiding using child labour
gender division of labour and other social features related to gender
sons and daughters may be more relatively valued. son preference more widespread in Asia, middle east, not universal. Southeast asia- balances sex ration. Venezuela, Sahara- daughter preference
sex-selective infanticide
killing of an infant/child because of its sex
material power
age difference at time of marriage
low husband power
wife older than husband 5%, 53% of first bon kept were boys
intermediate husband power
ages of husband and wife are about equal, 60%, 34% of first born kept were boys
high husband power
husband older than wife, 35%, 84% of first born kept were boys
national level
national governments decreasing and increasing rates of population growth within boundaries. governments: providing employment, public services, tax base ranks of military, maintaining ethic and regional proportions, dealing with population aging.
global level
far reasoning layer affecting decision-making about fertility at international level. Wold bank, pharmaceutical companies, religious leaders influence national and individual priorities about fertility. Population policies of governments of donor countries affect welfare of people in developing countries
fertility control
increase it, reduce it, regulate chid spacing
direct
herbs and medicine inducing abortion
indirect
long periods of breastfeeding- reduced chances of conception
family planning
induced abortion- long standing, New reproductive technologies
induced abortion
prevent fetal development and lead to abortion. cultural universal. practised in practically all societies. Women herself of help from another woman (mid-wife). hitting abdomen, starving, drugs, jumping, lifting, hard work, poverty. Economic and social factors explain induced abortion, culturally defined legitimacy, social penalties for bearing illegitimate child.
attitudes
acceptability to conditional approval to tolerance to opposition and punishment
Governments interfering to regulate access to abortion
promoting or forbidding it
religion and abortion
related, no simple relationship between teaching and doing
illegal abortions
negative effects on womens health
ahimsa
nonviolence toward other living beings, including fetus where the mothers can feel the movements. controversial- hindus abort females
japan
abortion is the most common use of birth control
New reproductive technologies
important contemporary issue worldwide. Choice of abortion to having children, decide to abort fetus on gender, disability, characteristics.
Genetic information on fetus
Continue or stop the pregnancy
amniocentesis
legal test used to reveal certain genetic problems in fetus . overpowering. anthropologists question social justice and ethical issues
IVF
bypass infertility in woman or couple, promote fertility, reproduction gone awry, non-natural, ones failure, natural inadequacy
Culture and death
cultural anthropology studied fertility more than mortality (more difficult to research in fieldwork). research emphasis between fertility and mortality is greater availability of funding for fertility studies given worldwide concern with population growth and family planning
cultural factors
certain people are more at risk of dying from certain cause at particular age than others ex. car accident
proximate cause of death
closest to actual outcome
levels of causality in population studies
proximate, intermediate and ultimate
question of ultimate causation
entails analysis of deeper economic, political, social factors putting individuals at risk of dying
infanticide
widely practiced, rarely frequent or common.
direct infanticide
frequent reason. killing an infant or child from beating, smothering, drowning, poisoning, usually do do the child being deformed, ill, the sex, adulterous conception, too many children, twins, unwed mother, poverty
indirect infanticide
more subtle, killing of an infant or child with prolonged practices like food deprivation, not bringing them to the clinic, no warm clothing during cold weather
mothers convicted of killing offsprings
usually young, unmarried, lacked financial family resources to help them out.
family resources constraints, child fitness
parent expectation for kids, not meeting these expectations can lead to disappointment, detachment equaling neglect, direct infanticide
modernization of mortality
deep division between mortality patterns of rich and poor
infant mortality rate
deaths of children under age of one year per 1000 births. declined substantially, unevenly distributed
high infant death rates
concentrated among poorest classes of society
poverty
forces mothers to selectively and unconsciously neglect babies weak or sick sending them to heaven rather than keeping them alive with inadequate resources available
religious beliefs
provide ideological support for practice of indirect infanticide allowing to believe babies are safe in heaven
infants sex- infanticide
females, nonfood producers, intergroup warfare, health care, contemporary times, gender division labour, marriage practices and costs
suicide
varies from positive to negative act, can be a crime and sin in some contexts and positive in others, prevalent in industrialized societies. widening gap between aspirations limited was of achieving aspirations due to economic constraints
catholism- suicide
sin, lower rates
protestant- suicide
higher rates
buddhist- suicide
non punishable crime, political statement
japan, asia, south pacific- suicide
noble and honourable act, strong commitment to group goals, failure to meet goals= saving face
suicide terrorism
prominent in use since 9/11. suicide of one or more people with intention of killing other people at the same time
martydrom
person facing and accepting death for sacred cause. linked with killing others
sati
suicide of wife upon death of husband (india past and present) personal and group honour
direct coercion
drugged, forced
indirect coercion
to blame, not even devotion, prat, fast, ate too much
four aspects of colonial stress related to high suicide rates
stress of identity and self- identification
stress of isolation
stress of changing intergenerational relations
inuusittaqarniq
young men affected, intergenerational expectations, inability to fulfill them
sex ratio
number of males per 100 females in population
dowry
transfer of cash and goods from brides family to newly married couple and to grooms family
groomprice
transfer of cash an goods, large amount, from brides family to the grooms family
brideprice/brideworth
transfer of goods and cash from grooms fault to bride and brides family
epidemics
disease spread rapidly and widely thought populations. affects population numbers and challenges peoples social and psychological coping mechanisms (HIV)
Violence
private interpersonal conflict or public arena, informal conflict between individual groups, gang fights, formal conflict- war
direct violence
killing someone with a weapon
indirect violence
government not providing food during a disaster
culture and violence
culture shapes victim pattern of violent death
private violence- wife killing
common, most of the world in varying degrees, more women killed by spouses than men. motivated by obsessive material interest in extracting wealth from wides family through continuing demanding gifts, no gifts= wife in danger
anecdotal evidence
middle east, husband kills wife or daughter for impunity, form of honour
femicide
killing or murder of someone based on the sole fact of being female
lethal public violence
warfare, genocide
mortality- horticultural societies
warfare= leading cause of male death, many groups are in conflict with each other
mortality- industrialized societies
death rates of male actively involved in warfare are much smaller proportion of death rate, replaced by other causalities like automobile accidents or heart disease.
public policies
instruments of indirect violence or structural violence leading to excess death
maternal mortality rate
deaths of women relate to pregnancy and birth per 100 000 live births.
reproduction- modes of production
culture shapes fertility, births in population, foraging, agricultural and industrialism- mored of mode or production
family sedenterization
new reproduction, not constantly moving= more children, highest fertility rates, industrial economies have lowest fertility rates
economic inequalities
linked to different patterns of fertility among different classed people
culture and fertility
not purely natural, many techniques for increasing fertility and reducing and regulating
non-industrial societies
knowledge, practice of fertility regulated largely, unspecialized and available to all. herbs. natural sources, inducing abortion
industrial societies
substantial scientific and medical knowledge do not control reproduction knowledge and expertise
mortality- culture
population growth and change affected through culture shaping of death. infanticide- due to fitness, gender, limited resources. high unbalanced sex ration, suicide,, epidemics, public and private violence. Culturally patterned. birth and death are cultural events
