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BIOL10010: life's complexity > ecology > Flashcards

ecology Flashcards

1
Q

define semelparous

A

individuals that breed once in their lifetime

death after reproduction is part of an overall strategy that includes investing all available resources into maximising the reproduction at the expense of future life

one individual will have an initial growth phase and then only a single reproductive event

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2
Q

define iteroparous

A

individual that (potentially) breed multiple times in their life

have multiple reproductive cycles and therefore can mate more than once in a lifetime

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3
Q

define annuals

A

one generation per year

e.g. plants that complete their entire life cycle - germination to the production of seeds - within a single growing season

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4
Q

define perennials

A

one generation over several years

e.g. plants that persist through multiple growing seasons, living for several years

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5
Q

timing of reproductive events are defined by

A

seasons vs resource availability

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6
Q

define fecundity

A

an organism’s reproductive capacity - the number of offspring it’s capable of producing

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7
Q

define parental investment

A

energetic investment into each offspring e.g. egg size, amount of parental care

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8
Q

early reproduction strategy

A
  • short-lived, small in body size
  • strategy is geared towards early energy going toward reproduction rather than growth
  • reduces the risk of not reproducing
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9
Q

late reproduction strategy

A
  • long-lived, larger in body size
  • strategy is greater toward putting energy into growth to a larger size where mortality rates are lower, than later in life insetting energy in reproduction
  • strategy carries a higher risk of not reproducing at all or to maximum capacity if death early
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10
Q

define K

A

selection for traits that are advantageous in high density populations

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11
Q

define R

A

selection for traits that maximise reproductive success in uncrowded or low density populations

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12
Q

define population

A

a group of individuals of the same species in the same location, with the individuals:
- rely on the same resources

  • influenced by similar environmental conditions
  • interact with others
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13
Q

properties of a population

A
  • boundary
  • size (dynamic)
  • distribution
  • structure
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14
Q

define boundary of a population

A
  • natural (e.g. lake, island)
  • arbitrary (e.g. national park)

match to the purpose of the study and the organism

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15
Q

define size (dynamic) of a population

A
  • births
  • deaths
  • emigration
  • immigration
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16
Q

distribution of a population

A
  • clumped
  • uniform
  • random
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17
Q

applications in managing populations

A
  • threatened species management
  • pest control
  • harvested population
  • disease dynamics
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17
Q

structure of a population

A
  • sex ratio
  • age structure
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18
Q

define population ecology

A

the scientific study of populations in relation to the environment and resources

how biotic and abiotic factors influences the abundance, distribution and composition of populations

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19
Q

managing populations to reduce a population that is relying on the same resources

A
  • increase deaths (introduce a disease)
  • decrease births (contraceptive in baits)
  • decrease immigration (use a fence)
  • increase emigration (introduce a potential predator)
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20
Q

define full census

A

count every individual

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21
Q

sampling estimate in a population

A

locate plots across a portion of the population’s range
- count all the individuals within plots

  • estimate average density
  • extrapolate to the entire population
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22
Q

precision depends on

A
  • number of plots
  • variation in counts between plots
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23
Q

assumptions of mark recapture

A
  • marks are durable for the length of the study
  • marks don’t decrease survival
  • probability of recapture remains consistent
  • closed population (no births, deaths, immi- or emi- gration
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24
Q

violation of assumptions will lead to

A

will lead to bias

  • systematic over- under- estimation of abundance
  • may need to modify analysis to account for violations
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25
Q

define demography

A

study of the birth and death rates of populations and how they change over time

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26
Q

survivorship curves classifications

A

type I: most individual die late in life
type II: uniform rate of decline
type III: huge decline die in young

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27
Q

define population models

A

Population models are mathematical models that estimate change in population size over time

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28
Q

types of population growth models

A
  • exponential growth
  • logistic growth
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28
Q

dotted line in a population model

A

when a population reaches its carrying capacity

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29
Q

when does exponential growth occur?

A
  • Occurs when populations are not limited by resources
  • When R is greater than 0 (higher births than death)
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30
Q

define population fluctuations

A

the dynamics of natural populations are often stochastic

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31
Q

when does logistic growth occur?

A
  • Occurs when populations are limited by resources
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32
Q

density-independent factors

A
  • severe heat waves
  • storm events
  • pollution (e.g. oil spill)
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33
Q

density-dependent factors

A
  • competition for resources
  • predation
  • disease
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34
Q

what is environmental stochasticity

A
  • Unpredictable fluctuations in environmental conditions
  • Cause variability in resources such as food, predators and other environmental conditions
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35
Q

what is demographic stochasticity

A

Change in birth and death of individuals caused by chance

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36
Q

define metapopulation

A

a group of geographically isolated populations linked together by dispersal

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37
Q

define source population

A

support local population growth and can be net exporters of individuals (emigration) to other patches

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38
Q

define sink population

A

mortality exceeds births and populations are reliant on immigration to persist

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39
Q

what are the types of rates of movement

A
  • colonisation rate
  • extinction rate
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40
Q

what is colonisation rate

A

the proportion of unoccupied sites that become occupied per unit time

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41
Q

what is extinction rate

A

the proportion of occupied sites that go extinct per unit time

42
Q

types of species interactions where one species eats another species

A
  • herbivory
  • parasitism
43
Q

predator strategies

A
  • Active pursuit
  • Stealthy ambusher
44
Q

Prey strategies

A
  • Avoiding detection
  • Chemical defenses
  • Warning signals
  • Mimicry systems
  • Behavioural mechanisms
45
Q

define competition

A

A niche of a species is the physical and biological conditions required for growth, reproduction and survival

46
Q

what is fundamental niche

A

defined by a species’ physiological

47
Q

define realised niche

A

defined by its interactions with other species

48
Q

define interference competition

A

occurs when one species directly interferes with or excludes another species’ access to a limiting resource

49
Q

Movement from one breeding location to another

A
  • Natal dispersal - from place to birth to place of first breeding
  • Breeding dispersal - change of place of breeding
49
Q

define exploitation competition

A

occurs when a limiting resource is available to all competitors, but the outcome of the interaction depends on the relative efficiency with which each species uses the resource

50
Q

Often influenced by age

A

Prior to breeding

51
Q

animals mode of dispersal

A
  • Active: fly, walk, swim
  • Passive: current, floods, attached to animals, vehicles
51
Q

Often influenced by sex

A
  • Female bias common in birds
  • Male bias common in mammals
52
Q

plants mode of dispersal

A
  • Gravity, wind, water, animals (attach or in gut), vehicles/machinery
53
Q

define dispersal

A

Dispersal refers to the spreading of individuals away from others. Can be early in life or as an adult

54
Q

define migration

A

Migration is the large-scale movement of members of a species to a different environment (periodic and generally predictable)

55
Q

Dispersal as a fundamental influence on population dynamics

A

Invasive species

Dynamics of metapopulations
- contribute to local extinction
- colonisation

56
Q

define symbiosis

A

all the interactions between species that affect their abundance and distributions

Species interactions can be classified by whether they help, harm or have no effect on the species involved

57
Q

Mutualism

A

Both species benefit

coevolution enhances beneficial interactions, where both species adapt in ways that increase the mutual benefits

57
Q

Commensalism

A

1 benefits
1 neither benefits nor harmed

58
Q

Parasitism

A

1 benefits
1 harmed

species are engaged in an ‘arms race’ with the parasite trying to keep its benefits, and the host aiming to avoid harm

59
Q

Obligate

A

Cannot survive without the relationship

60
Q

Facultative

A

Survive individually but not as well when separated

61
Q

Diffuse

A

Share multiple relationships with more than 1 species

62
Q

Specific

A

Only share relationship with 1 other species

63
Q

Endosymbionts

A

Benefit from the internal system

64
Q

Ectosymbionts

A

Benefit from the external system

64
Q

Epiphyte

A

plants that grow on other plants for physical support

65
Q

what are parasites

A

Smaller than their host

Live on or in the host for extended period of time

Usually don’t kill the host (but can)

Hosts can recover from parasites

The habitats of parasites are themselves alive, and they can
- grow
- mount defences against parasites
- evolve
- move

66
Q

what can parasites be

A

Protozoans
Animals
Fungi
plants

67
Q

Microparasites

A

Small and often intra-cellular

Multiply directly within their host

Often extremely numerous (bacteria, viruses, protozoa)

68
Q

Macroparasites

A

Grow on or in hot but do not multiple in their host

Produce infectious stages which they release into the environment to find new hosts
Often live on the body or in the body cavities (e.g. gut, intestines) rather than being intracellular (e.g. helminths, nematodes, tapeworms)

69
Q

Heteroxenic

A

life cycles involve multiple (often completely unrelated) organisms as hosts

69
Q

monoxenic

A

life cycles that feature just one host

70
Q

Seed dispersal in plants

A

Plants
Dispersal to potential germination sites far away from the parent plant

Bonus organic fertiliser

70
Q

Kleptoparasites

A

Parasitism by theft-one animal deliberately taking food from another

71
Q

Pollination

A

In flowering plants - the process of transferring pollen from an anther to the stigma

72
Q

seed dispersal for frugivores

A

food

73
Q

corals

A

Corals have endosymbiotic dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae

Corals feed and emit waste products which they consume on nutrient

Zooxanthellae contribute products of photosynthesis to the coal polyps

Coral bleaching is when polyps expel their zooxanthellae

73
Q

seed dispersal for lichens

A

Fungi + algae or cyanobacteria partners

Algae or cyanobacteria provide food via photosynthesis

Fungi provide protection from environmental variability

74
Q

Community effects

A

Interactions that alter survival of individuals can affect population growth

Mutualism and commensalism can therefore shape population and community dynamics

74
Q

Orgnaisms with populations that are “too large”

A
  • Damaging to agriculture
  • Damaging to species we value
  • Damaging to the environment and biodiversity
  • Often introduced species, but can also be native species
75
Q

Stress-gradient hypothesis predict

A

Competition (antagonistic) relationships more common in lower stress environments

Mutualisms (facilitation) more common in higher stress environments

76
Q

Classical biological control

A

the deliberate importation and release of new species

77
Q

Enemy release hypothesis

A
  • When species are introduced, usually their enemies aren’t
  • Without natural predators, competitors, parasites, pathogens - populations of introduced species are not limited as they normally would be in natural range
78
Q

Augmentative biological control

A

repeated rearing and release of natural enemies

Tailored specifically towards agriculture

Local or commercially available rather than imported

Natural enemies are reared and released into crops

Typically predators, parasitoids

79
Q

Conservation biological control

A

promoting or protecting existing natural enemies

80
Q

Keys to success for classical biological control species:

A

Host specificity

High reproductive rates

Good searching ability

Must occur at the same time as host

Adaptable to different environmental conditions

81
Q

Key steps to selecting a good biological control agent:

A

Survey for natural enemies

Test host specificity

Release widely and monitor establishment

82
Q

Parasitoids

A

A predator on a single prey item

Parent finds the prey and offspring eats it

Selective on a life stage of one species

Only females fine the host

The host doesnt die until young are grown adults

83
Q

Inoculative augmentation

A

control by released enemies and their progeny

The released organisms and their progeny perform the control

Release once during the season

Expected to reproduce to continue control

Longer-term
Fewer natural enemies

84
Q

Indundative augmentation

A

Not expected to establish their own sustaining populations

But - they are living organisms capable of reproduction

Short-term

Released repeatedly during the season

85
Q

Conservation biological control

A

“Modification of the environment or existing practices to protect and enhance natural enemies to reduce the effects of pests”

86
Q

conservation can be developed by providing:

A

Food sources (nectar and pollen)

Permanent shelter or habitats
Favourable microclimates

Alternate prey or hosts (often present in more diverse habitats

87
Q

Enhancing food sources e.g. nectar and pollen flower strips

A

Overall can enhance predator populations

Increases the overall
biodiversity of natural enemies

Sustaining their populations even when pests are scarce

Reduce the need for chemical pesticides

88
Q

Alternate prey or hosts

A

Provide prey species that are similar to pests

But not pests themselves

Ensures natural enemies remain active and abundant even when pests are scarce

maintains consistent pressure, reducing outbreaks

Reduces the need for chemical interventions

89
Q

Effects of parasitism and disease on an animal or plant population depends on:

A

Pathogen virulence - the degree of damage or harm a pathogen causes to its host

Whether the pathogen reduces host survival (death rate), reproduction (birth rate), or both

90
Q

Epidemic diseases

A

increase rapidly in smaller geogrpahic areas

Characterised by rapid changes in prevalence

Outbreaks cause waves of infection that can cause rapid population declines

Infections can disappear from a particular host population

91
Q

Endemic disease is constantly present in a population subset

A

Limited fluctuation in prevalence

Hosts have some tolerance

Tend to not cause outbreaks

Persist for long times in populations

Geographically restricted

92
Q

Vaccination

A

Only viable for some species and some pathogens

Delivery is a challenge for wild populations

93
Q

behavioural modifications

A

e.g. quarantine

94
Q

Culling

A

Humanely removing animals from the population

Reduce infected individuals and the overall number of hosts to decrease the transmission of the pathogen

95
Q

Reducing vectors (e.g. mosquitos)

A

Target organisms that transmit disease

Biological control, insecticides, environmental modification

Reduce transmission rates

96
Q

Disease control - hosts can evolve and influence virulence:

A

Host tolerance - ability of a host to tolerate infection by minimising the damage without impeding replication or transmission of the pathogen

Host resistance - ability of a host to reduce the probability of infection, reduce pathogen replication within host, and/or increase the speed of pathogen clearance (recovery)

97
Q

Extinction

A

Pathogens can cause extinction if:
- The exhibit frequency-dependent transmission

  • Have long-lived infectious stages
  • Infect multiple different host species

BIOL10010: life's complexity (4 decks)

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