Ecologism Flashcards
Environmentalism
A concern about the natural environment
a desire to reduce environmental degradation
a policy orientation rather than ideological stance
deep ecology
a green ideological perspective that rejects anthropocentrism and gives priority to the maintenance of nature
associated with values such as bio centric and equality diversity and decentralisation
shallow ecology
a green ideological perspective that harnesses the lessons of ecology to human needs and ends as they are of overriding moral and political importance
such views imply, albeit in different ways, that the non-human world is only of value insofar as it satisfies human ends.
is associated with values such as sustainability and conservation eg population control; limiting non renewable resources and reducing pollution
humanist ecology
anthropocentrism
Anthropocentrism is the belief that human needs and interests are of overriding moral and philosophical importance.
All conventional political ideologies are based on anthropocentrism, as reflected in an emphasis on human rights, humanity, social order, the interests of a nation/race, and so on.
Such views imply, albeit in different ways, that the non-human world is only of value insofar as it satisfies human ends.
Some ecological thinking is nevertheless based on anthropocentric assumptions, as in the case of so-called ‘shallow’ ecology.
ecocentrism
an approach to understanding that prioritises the maintenance of ecological balance over the achievement of human ends
In this view, humans are merely part of nature, contributing to its wellbeing, and have no greater, or separate value.
Ecocentrism implies a belief in value-in-nature, which can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of nature, viewed as ethical community.
Ecocentrism is most clearly embraced by so-called ‘deep’ ecologist, although eco-feminists also favour ecocentrism.
ecology
branch of biology
focus s on the ways plante and animals are sustained by self regulating natural systems
composed of living and non living elements
interconnectedness and equilibrium
ecosystems tend towards a state of harmony through a system of self regulation
key points of deep ecology
humans must develop a new CONSIOUSNESS that sees humankind as an intrinsic part of the natural world
earth is a single complete organism
humans are part of that whole
key features of shallow ecology?
humans should care for the environment for its own sake
different aspects of the natural world are interconnected so our treatment of nature should take this into account
existing political and economic structures must be transformed so that they place environmental issues at the centre of their concerns
what do shallow deep and liberal environmentalists think about interconnectedness?
shallow - different aspects of the natural world are interconnected so our treatment of nature should take this into account
deep - earth is a single complete organism
humans are part of that whole
liberal environmentalism - environmental issues can be treated separately
what is the fundamental feature of eco feminism?
environmental science has been patriarchal in nature
the link between patriarchy and environmental degradation is that men have a natural disposition to see themselves superior in nature
women are free of this patriarchal consciousness seeing them self as part of nature not above it
entropy
a tendency towards decay or disintegration exhibited by all closed systems
industrialism
an economic system characterised by relentless growth and the accumulation of capital
what do deep ecologists advocate as a solution to industrialism
zero growth
if the origins of ecological crisis are in materialism, consumerism and the fixation with growth
this is the solution
zero growth and the construction of a post industrial age
people rely on craft skills living in small rural communities
literally a return to nature
space ship earth theory
the belief that the earths resources are finite, limited and exhaustible
just as a spaceship will inevitably run out of supplies so too will the earth
the spaceship is a closed system - and so has a tendency towards entropy as it is not sustained by external inputs
kenneth boulding
holism
associated with the views of capra
“the turning point” 1982
the belief that the natural world is a single organic whole
influenced by eastern mysticism and buddhism
gaia
the earth is seen as a single living organic whole
even inanimate objects are included in the whole
it self regulated global temperature atmospheric content ocean salinity and mainly its habitability
1960s james lovelock
biodiversity
refers to the belief that the fullest possible range of the earths plants and animal species should be preserved
biocentric ecology
this principle implies that all organisms and entities in the biosphere are of equal moral worth
leopoldo “sand country almanac” is the best expression of this
weak sustainability
associated with shallow ecology
reconciled ecology with economic growth (at a slower pace)
this is done through changes to the tax system; penalising and discouraging pollution or to reduce the use of finite resources
strong sustainability
social or deep ecology
greater stress on preserving natural capital and is more critical of economic growth
the fixation with materialism consumerism and economic growth means the only solution is ZERO GROWTH in a POST INDUSTRIAL AGE
people live in small rural communities relying on craft skills rejection of industry and technology - return to nature
how have some ecologists supported capitalism?
Some ecologists have supported capitalism, even advancing the ideas of so-called ‘green capitalism’.
The idea that capitalism is naturally ecological or green, stem from the belief that capitalist enterprises are highly responsive to consumer pressures.
In this view, as consumers become increasingly ecologically aware, recognising that climate change, pollution and so on negatively impact on the quality of their lives, producers will respond by producing new good and favouring green technologies.
Ultimately capitalists will recognise that long-term corporate profitability can only be ensured in the context of sustainable development.
what does the tragedy of the commons explain
it is a model explaining why over exploitation of environmental resources has occurred
this is explained in terms of the behaviours of individuals in a community, the actions of groups in a society etc
explain the “tragedy of the commons”
there is environmental vulnerability as people have open access to collective resources
common land or common fish stocks encourage individuals to act in rational self interested ways
so exploiting the resources available to satisfy their needs (including their family and community)
the impact of this may be devastating as resources are depleted and despoiled - rational individuals are self defeated in irrational ends
how can entropy be slowed down
if governments and private citizens respect ecological principles
ecologists argue the human species will only survive and prosper if it recognises that it is merely one element of a complex biosphere
so sustainability should be adhered to
what is buddhist economics
Schumacher: small is beautiful
individuals are NOT utility maximisers
disagreed with the convention obsession with wealth creation
argued production facilities foster personal growth by developing skills and talents
help to over come egocenteredness by forging social bonds as people work together
explain the environmentally ethical issue of a moral obligation to future generations
the question of our moral obligation to future generations
forced ecologists to extend the notion of human interests to encompass the human species as a whole; making no distinction between past and future generations
“futurity”
why do shallow ecologists advocate concern for futurity
care for and obligations towards future generations can be seen as a natural duty; cross generational justice is an extension of a moral concern for our children and their children and so on
thus is linked to the ideas of ecological stewardship - the idea that no generation ‘owns’ nature; rather each generations merely protects and conserves nature for the benefit of generations to come.
This argument is sometimes linked to conservative thinking about the nature of tradition and the idea that society is a partnership between the living and the dead.
Liberals have sometimes used the principle of individualism to acknowledge the rights of individuals yet to be born.
why has ecological stewardship been criticised
conventional moral thinkers argue all rights depend on reciprocity
absurd to endow people who have yet to be born with rights that impose duties on people currently alive since the unborn have no duties to the living
it is also practically incalculable
potentially unlimited size of future generations
the present generation may make sacrifices for bthe benefit of future generations who may be better of than themselves
OR the current sacrifices are insufficient to meet future needs
explain the environmental ethical approach to animals and organisms
Animal rights - ecocentrism
Peter Singer
he argued that an altruistic concern for the well being of other species derived from the fact that they are capable of suffering (are sentient)
animals like humans have an interest in avoiding physical pain (utilitarianism)
thus he has condemned SPECIESISM
argument does not apply to non sentient life eg trees rocks rivers
and argument has special consideration with more developed and self aware animals eg apes
REDUCED moral consideration for human foetuses and mentally impaired people who have no capacity for suffering
what is modernist or reformist equality
form of green politics practised by environmental pressure groups and a range of political parties
advancers ecological principles
promotes environmentally sound practices
WITHOUT rejecting capitalism modernity (individual self seeking, materialism, economic growth)
shallow or humanist ecology
what is the key feature of modernist ecology
recognition that there are environmental limits to growth
pollution
co2 emissions increase
the exhaustion of non renewable energy sources
threaten prosperity and economic performance
so support sustainable development (weak sustainability); environmentally sustainable capitalism
getting rich more slowly
how have deep/radical ecologists revised conventional ethical thought
Ecocentric ethical thinking - new metaphysics (way of thinking about the world)
More radically, ‘deep’ ecologists argue that nature has value in its own right; that is, intrinsic value not just an instrumental value deriving from its benefits to human beings
Nature is an ethical community; in which humans are nothing more than “plain citizens” with no more rights than any other member of the community.
This idea of value-in-nature can, for example, be seen in the ‘land ethic’, a belief that a “thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community”, viewed as ethical community.
DE call for the adoption of an “ecological consciousness” which allows for no distinction between the self and the other, collapsing the distinction between humankind and nature
Biocentric equality
The principle that all organisms and entities in the biosphere are of equal moral worth, each being an expression of nature
Arne Naess all things have an “equal right to live and bloom”
reflects the benefits of biodiversity
how do humanist or shallow ecologists criticise deep ecology
they argue it is morally and philosophically flawed
this stems from the deep ecologists view on environmental ethics; idea of the “intrinsic” value of nature
humanists argue environmental ethics can’t be non anthropocentric because morality is a human construct
“good” and “bad” is only meaningful when applied to human beings with the capacity for suffering and self reflection
how do social ecologists criticised deep ecologist
Murray Bookchin
it fails to recognise the impact on the relationship between humankind and nature of social and economic systems e.g. capitalism or patriarchy; dismissing them as expressions of the Cartesian Newtonian paradigm
concerned with an inner revolution, which Bookchina argues can’t be achieved without radical social change
By rejecting rationalism and embracing mysticism, trying to re-echant nature
it succumbs to the “vulgar Californian spiritualism” or ECO-LA-LA
Bahro
presented capitalism as the root cause of the environmental crisis
socialism is the solution
links social justice to environmental sustainability
moved beyond conventional ecological crisis had become so pressing that it must take precedence over the class struggle
examples of sustainable development in practice
1987 Brundtland Report
Micheal Reynolds - earthships
who first distinguished between shallow and deep ecology and why
Arne Naess in 1972
shallow concerns failed to appreciate that ecologist was a philosophy that should exist for its own sake; still placing a higher level on humans than the rest of the world
deep ecology considers the natural world as a system within which humankind has equal status with other species; environmental protection is worth doing for the sake of it, not for human benefit
what are two key points of Naess’ 8 point platform
1 the wellbeing and flourishing of human and non human life on earth have value in themselves. these values are independent of the usefulness of the non human world for human purposes
4 the flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a sustainably small human population
sustainability in practice
Kyoto 1997 - targets on industrialised countries related to greenhouse gases
Rio 2012 - aim to build a green economy and improve international coordination
Paris Agreement 2015 - increase the ability to adapt to climate change, efforts to limit climate change increase in temp.
what methods have shallow ecologists used as a means of reducing environmental degradation
fishing bans and quotas imposed by Eu
management of fishing stocks
Obama administration: promoting renewable power sources e.g. solar energy and and
what methods have deep ecologists used as a means of reducing environmental degradation
paradigm shift in consciousness
changed attitudes to material wealth and economic growth (zero growth)
reduction in the worlds population (arne ness)
this reduced population would be more self sufficient, with very limited international trade and movement of people
ecofeminist mary daly argued this should be specifically men
how do ecofeminists argue women are linked to nature
both nature and women are treated in an inferior manner by society, by men
both women and the natural world are viewed as the other, manipulated, controlled and oppressed
women have a physiological connection with nature via birth and childcare; menstrual cycles are linked to the lunar cycle
what society do ecofeminists desire
pre industrial world should be promoted and celebrated as industrialisation and capitalism are male dominated processes
women only areas should be established so women can align themselves more fundamentally with their feminine nature, in spaces free from patriarchal influence
BUT some think men can develop environmental focus, it is just more challenging
Mary Daly urged women to access the wild woman within them to liberate themselves from the social restrictions of female behaviour
explain why and how deep ecologists advocate population control
call for a substantial decrease in the human population
as it is the only way of ensuring the flourishing of non human life
deep ecologists have thus rejected aid to the developing world, called for a reduction in LIC birth rates, and argued immigration to LIC should be stopped
