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Environmental Geology > Earth Materials > Flashcards

Earth Materials Flashcards

1
Q

the substance of which any physical object is composed

A

matter

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2
Q

States of matter

A

solid
liquid
gas

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3
Q

controlling factors of matter

A

temperature and pressure

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4
Q

the make-up of solid matter on Earthj

A

atoms > elements > compounds > minerals > rocks

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5
Q

fundamental building blocks

A

elements

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6
Q

what is Goldschmidt’s classification?

A

a geochemical classification which groups the chemical elements according to their preferred host phases

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7
Q

silicate loving, mainly consists of the highly reactive metals of the s and f-blocks

A

lithophiles

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8
Q

iron-loving, high-density transition metals that tend to bond with metallic iron in the solid or molten state

A

siderophile

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9
Q

sulfur-loving, poor metals, and heavier nonmetals that have a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with sulfur as highly insoluble sulfides

A

chalcophile

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10
Q

gas loving, h, c, n noble gases, are defined as those that are found chiefly or exclusively in the form of gases

A

atmophile

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11
Q

have in common increasing unpaired electrons

A

LREE - Light Rare Earth Materials

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12
Q

have paired electrons (a clockwise and counter-clockwise spinning electron)

A

HREE - Heavy Rare Earth Materials

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13
Q

builds elements, smallest particle that uniquely defines an element

A

atoms

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14
Q

Protons + neutrons define the ___ of an atom

A

nucleus

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15
Q

Layers of electrons that orbit around the nucleus
are called____

A

orbitals or energy-level shells

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16
Q

atoms of the same element that have different mass numbers

A

isotopes

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17
Q

protons + average # neutron

A

atomic weight

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18
Q

= # protons + # neutrons

A

mass number

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19
Q

an atom that has gained or lost an electron`

A

ion

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20
Q

a loss of electrons, resulting in a positive (+) charge

A

cation

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21
Q

a gain of electrons, resulting in a negative (-) charge

A

anion

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22
Q

consists of elements that combine in a specific ratio

A

chemical compount

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23
Q

smallest quantity of a compound is called a __

A

Molecule

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24
Q

molecules are held together by __.
- formation of a compound by combining two or more elements
- manner in which electrons are distributed among
atoms

A

chemical bonding

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25
Q

In bonded atoms, electrons may be___,
_____, or _____.

A

lost, gained, hared

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26
Q

types of chemical bonding and describe

A

Ionic bonding: electrons are transferred between atoms forming attracting ions/ orderly arrangement of oppositely charged ions. bonds are moderately strong

Covalent bonding: electrons are shared between atoms, generally strong bonds

Metallic Bonding: electrons drift around from atom to atom, good conductors of electrical current, weaker, less common

Van der Waals bonding:
* sheets of covalently bonded atoms held together by
weak electrostatic forces
* very weak bond

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27
Q

Where electronegativity differences in transitional ionic–covalent bonds are smaller than 1.68, the bonds are primarily electron-_____ bonds.

A

sharing covalent

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28
Q

Where electronegativity differences are larger than 1.68, the bonds are primarily electron-___ bonds

A

transfer ionic

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29
Q

{1-exp[(-0.25)(E1-E2)2]} x 100

A

%IC (ionic character)

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30
Q

Calculate NaCl’s %ionic character.
Given:
Electronegativity of Na= 0.93
Electronegativity of Cl= 3.16

A

–

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31
Q

makes up solid matter on Earth

A

minerals

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32
Q

Definition of Minerals

A

naturally occurring
inorganic
definite chemical composition
ordered crystalline structure
homogenous solid

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33
Q

definition of a rock

A

a solid aggregate of minerals

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34
Q

diagnostic property/description of alabaster

A

massive

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35
Q

diagnostic property/description of selenite

A

bladed

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36
Q

diagnostic property/description of satin spar

A

fibrous

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37
Q

diagnostic property/description of enargite and luzonite

A

arsenosulfides

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38
Q

diagnostic property/description of Semi-Anthracite

A

form of coal

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39
Q

diagnostic property/description of dolimite

A

cast for fossils

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40
Q

diagnostic property/description of garnierite

A

nickel ore

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41
Q

diagnostic property/description of bornite

A

peacock ore, can be scratch by 5-cent copper

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42
Q

diagnostic property/description of copper concentrate

A

Cu, Fe, Mg , Au in powdered form for smelting into coppper wire

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43
Q

diagnostic property/description of granite

A

quartz, hornblende, k-felds

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44
Q

diagnostic property/description of olivine group: Forsterite (Fe) and Fayalite (Mg)

A

mantle consituents

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45
Q

diagnostic property/description of pyroxenes

A

90-deg cleav

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46
Q

diagnostic property/description of amphiboles

A

60-120 cleav

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47
Q

diagnostic property/description of micas

A

bird’s eye extinction

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48
Q

Abundance of Oxygen in the crust

A

46.6%

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49
Q

Abundance of Silicon in the crust

A

27.7%

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50
Q

Abundance of Al in the crust

A

8.1%

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51
Q

Abundance of Fe in the crust

A

5%

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52
Q

Abundance of Ca in the crust

A

3.6%

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53
Q

Abundance of Na in the crust

A

2.8%

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54
Q

Abundance of K in the crust

A

2.6%

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55
Q

Abundance of Mg in the crust

A

2.1%

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56
Q

independent tetrahedron satisfied in charge and held together by cation

A

Nesosilicate - Si:O ratio – 1:4

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57
Q

single – 2 adjacent silica tetrahedral linked through shared oxygen ions

A

Inosilicate - 1:3

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58
Q

double – tetrahedral share 2, then 3 corner oxygens alternately

A

Inosilicate - 4:11

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59
Q

each tetrahedron shares a corner oxygen with 3 neighbors

A

Phyllosilicate - 2:5

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60
Q

continuous 3-dimensional network of tetrahedral sharing all 4 corners

A

Tectosilicate 1:2

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61
Q

tetrahedral pair by sharing one corner. No important rock-forming minerals

A

Sorosilicate 2:7

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62
Q

tetrahedral each share two corners to form rings

A

Cyclosilicate 1:3

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63
Q

Polymorphs vs. Isomorphs vs. Pseudomorphs

A

Polymorphs are minerals with the same chemical
composition but different crystal structures. The
conditions are such things as temperature (T) and
pressure (P)

Pseudomorphs Minerals taking crystal form of another, pre-existing mineral. Original crystal should be: Euhedral/Subhedral at the time of formation

The same structure but with different chemical
composition.

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64
Q

Polymorphs of AL2SiO5 - Kyanite

A

andulsite
sillimanite

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65
Q

Polymorphs of Carbon

A

Diamond
Graphite

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66
Q

polymorph of Sphalerite

A

wurtzite

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67
Q

polymorph of Pyrite

A

Marcasite

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68
Q

Polymorph of SiO2 - Quartz

A

Stishovite
Coesite
a-quartz
b quartz
cristobalite
tridymite

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69
Q

processes of pseudomorphs

A

Replacement- pre-existing atoms are replaced by
new mineral retaining its external crystal form
Pyrite can be replaced by Geothite
Fluorite by quartz

Loss of Constituent from original crystals
dissolution of carbonate form
azurite to produce native copper

Encrustation – the new mineral mimics the original mineral’s crystal form.

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70
Q

example of isomorph

A

continuous series of bowens reaction

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71
Q

Ionic substitution (also called solid solution) occurs
because some elements (ions) have the _____ and thus substitution for one another
in a crystal structure is possible.

A

same size and charge,

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72
Q

What mineral groups exhibit ionic substitution?

A

fayalite og forsterite

73
Q

What are the different physical properties of a mineral

A

Color
Play of Colors (Asterism, Chatoyancy, Iridescence, Labradorescence, Opalescence)
Streak
Hardness (Mohs vs. Knoop vs.Vickers vs. Rosiwal Hardness Scale)
Tenacity (brittle, malleable, sectile, flexible, elastic)
Cleavage/Parting/Fracture/Striations
Luster (how light is reflected, e.g., vitreous, metallic/splendent, submetallic, resinous, pitchy, greasy, waxy, silky, pearly, adamantine, dull)
Diaphaneity or Opacity (opaque, transparent, translucent)
Density/Specific Gravity (How are they derived?)
Crystal Faces and Crystal Habits
Reaction to acid (HCl should be diluted i.e., 9 parts H2O and 1 part HCl)
Magnetism (Paramagnetism, Diamagnetism, Ferromagnetism-Ferrimagnetism)
Luminescence (Fluorescence, Phosphorescence, Thermoluminescence, Triboluminescence)
Electrical Properties (Pyroelectricity, Piezoelectricity)
Taste, Feel, Smell

74
Q

What are idiochromatic and allochromatic minerals?

A

Allochromatic - other colored due to trace impurities in their composition or defects in their structure ex. quartz

Idiochromatic- self-colored due to their composition, is a constant and predictable component of the mineral

75
Q

is caused by inclusions oriented according to the host
mineral’s crystal structure, which produces a six- sided, star -like
pattern as light is scattered by the inclusions at specific incident
angles.

A

asterism

76
Q

specifically in fibrous minerals, a band of light moves
perpendicular to fibers esp. when curved.

A

chatoyancy

77
Q

scattering of light, change of color in zones of
contrasting composition as the mineral is rotated.

A

iridescence

78
Q

– the iridescence in some specimens of
plagioclase

A

labradorescence

79
Q

the iridescence exhibited by opals

A

opalescence

80
Q

Color of a substance in its powdered form. I

A

streak

81
Q

is a way of predicting the chemical weathering rate of various minerals on the Earth’s surface

A

Goldich stability series

82
Q

Bowens Reaction Series

A

describes temperatures at which different common silicate minerals change from liquid to solid phase (or solid to liquid)

83
Q

Plagioclase series 100-0% An - continuous series

A

Anorthite
Bytownite
Labradorite
Andesine
Oligoclase
Albite

84
Q

It is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to scratching
and abrasion, and is usually measured in comparison to
other minerals of known hardness

A

hardness

85
Q

Mohs Scale

A

talc
gypsum
calcite
fluorite
apatite
orthoclase
quartz
topaz
corundum
diamond

86
Q

defined as the manner in which minerals respond to short-term
stresses at normal surface temperatures and pressures.

A

tenacity

87
Q

bent but return to their original shape when the stress is released

A

elastic

88
Q

Specimens that can be bent without breaking when stressed but do not return to their original shape possess a tenacity called

A

felxible

89
Q

Minerals such as native metals that are so plastic that they can be hammered into thin sheets are

A

malleable

90
Q

can be drawn into a thin wire

A

ductile

91
Q

materials respond to stress by deforming elastically by a small
percentage before fracturing after little or no plastic strain.

A

brittle

92
Q

Minerals break along flat surfaces, irregular surfaces, or a combination of both. The flat breaks are called

A

cleavage planes

93
Q

irregular breaks on minerals

A

fractures

94
Q

is the splitting of minerals along twinning or pressure planes.
This only happens along well-defined planes of weakness and is not reproducible like cleavage.

A

parting

95
Q

exhibit parallel sets of linear features called___ that appear as engraved ridges and/or grooves on mineral surfaces

A

striations

96
Q

It is the appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light

A

luster

97
Q

Diaphaneity or opacity depends on the amount of light
transmitted by a mineral specimen

A

Diaphaneity

98
Q

are relatively flat, geometric surfaces generated
by mineral growth. If crystal faces are present, they represent an
external expression of the mineral’s internal crystal structure

A

crystal faces

99
Q

is the characteristic external shape of an individual
crystal or aggregate of crystals. It is based on the relative
proportions of the crystals in three mutually perpendicular
directions (a, b and c) where a ≥ b ≥ c

A

crystal habit

100
Q

differential euhedral, subhedral and anhedral

A

Mineral crystals completely enclosed by crystal faces are said to be euhedral.
Mineral crystals that are only partially enclosed by crystal faces are said tobe subhedral.
Mineral crystals that possess no crystal faces are said to be anhedral and record growth conditions that did not permit the development of crystal faces.

101
Q

what does spar mean?

A

old mining or mineralogy term used to refer top crystals that have readily discernible

102
Q

what is alloreiomorphic/xenomorphic, hypidiomorphic, and
idiomorphic/panidiomorphic?

A
  • Review on Igneous Textures
    a) Allotriomorphic-granular (xenomorphicgranular or aplitic or sugary or saccaharoidal ) - almost all of the constituents are anhedral
    b) Hypidiomorphic-granular (hypautomorphic-granular or granitic) - some constituents are euhedral, some subhedra, and the rest anhedral
    c) Panidiomorphic-granular (automorphicgranular) - the chief minerals are euhedral
103
Q

When a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl(a)) is placed on the specimen, it fizzes or effervesces by releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.
HCl should be diluted i.e., 9 parts H2O and one-part HCl

A

reaction to acid

104
Q

, a response to an external magnetic field.

A

magnetism

105
Q

four types of magnetism

A

A) Paramagnetism - contains magnetic ions that tend to align along an applied magnetic field but do not have a spontaneous magnetic order
B) Diamagnetism -weakly magnetic and can be separated from each other by their various degrees of magnetic susceptibility.
C) Ferromagnetism -large magnetic domains aligned all in the same direction, resulting in very large magnetic susceptibilities. Ferromagnetic materials do not exist inside the Earth but are present in meteorites.
D) Ferrimagnetism - In ferrimagnets the moments are in an antiparallel alignment, but they do not cancel. The best example of a ferrimagnetic mineral is magnetite (Fe3O4).

106
Q

minerals emit light when subjected to an external source of energy

A

Luminescence

107
Q

due to absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation

A

fluorescence

108
Q

light emitted by a substance without combustion or perceptible heat.

A

phosphorescence

109
Q

heat-induced luminescence

A

thermoluminescence

110
Q

stress-induced luminescence

A

triboluminescence

111
Q

characteristic of anisotropic minerals that lack a center of symmetry; the fact that one end of the crystal is different from the other allows an electric potential to be created across the crystal

A

Electrical Properties

112
Q

is a phenomenon in which an increase in temperature induces an electric current that flows from one end of the crystal to the other.

A

Pyroelectricity

113
Q

is similar but is produced by a pressure or stress applied to one end of the mineral.

A

Piezoelectricity

114
Q

What are the different minerals/varieties belonging to the known silicate mineral groups?

A

Discontinuous series: Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Mica, Feldspar, and Quartz

115
Q

Why Does Quartz Have So Many Varieties?

A
  • The main reason is the different formation environments. Because of the different temperatures and pressure during the quartz formation, different impurities can get into the quartz structure.
  • Different colors of quartz varieties are explained by impurities of various elements (Ti, Fe, Mg, Mn, Al) and inclusions of other minerals.
116
Q

Differentiate weathering, alteration, erosion, and denudation.

A

denudation- the act or process of removing surface layers

erosion - is the name for the processes that both break down rocks ( weathering) and carry away the breakdown products ( transportation

change in the mineralogic composition of a rock brought about by physical or chemical means

weathering - in-situ physical disintegration and chemical breakdown of rocks

117
Q

two main processes of weathering

A

physical and chemical weathering

118
Q

loose fragments of rocks
or minerals broken off of bedrock,
minerals that precipitate directly out of
water, and shells of organisms

A
  • Sediment
119
Q

occurs when sediment settles out as
winds/water current die down, or as
glaciers melt.

A

deposition/ sedimentation

120
Q

Formation of cracks in rocks.

A

jointing

121
Q

form in rocks due to, stretching, or cooling (contraction

A

joint

122
Q

when deep rocks are exposed, the removal of
overburden causes sub-horizontal cracks to form causing the rock to easily peel away like layers of an onion. Also called sheet joints or unloading joints and are common in exposed batholiths

A

exfoliation joints

123
Q

water fills cracks, freezes, expands, and forces cracks to
open causing them to grow. Can lift large blocks.

A

frost wedging

124
Q

same as frost wedging except that roots pry open the cracks.

A

root wedging

125
Q

salt crystals form when
evaporating water flows through rocks.
The salt crystals pry open the cracks

A

salt wedging

126
Q

mechanical weathering processes create an apron or
pile of debris at the margins of slopes called_____

A

talus.

127
Q

differential talus and scree

A

talus (sand/silt sized particles) and scree (pebbles/cobble in size, usually angular)

128
Q

______ is the primary basis for distinguishing among various detrital sedimentary rocks.

A

particle size

129
Q

sizes of boulder, cobble, pebble, granule, sand, silt, clay

A

boulder - >256mm
cobble - 64-256mm
pebble - 4-64mm
granule- 2-4mm
sand - 1/16 -2mm
silt - 1/256- 1/16mm
clay <1/256mm

130
Q

refers to the degree of similarity in particle size in a
sedimentary rock

A

sorting

131
Q

A particle’s shape in terms of its ____ (degree to which
edges and corners are rounded) and ____ (how close
the shape is to a sphere)

A

angularity; sphericity

132
Q

Highly rounded grains indicate that a great deal of abrasion
and hence a great deal of transport has occurred. true or false?

A

true

133
Q

Chemical weathering is typically strongest in warm wet climates. true or false?

A

true

134
Q

types of chemical weathering

A

dissolution
hydrolysis
oxidation
hydration

135
Q

Primarily affects carbonates and salts when a chemical reaction breaks down minerals into new compounds

A

dissolution

136
Q

water acts to ‘loosen’ chemical bonds to break down minerals. Works faster in slightly acidic water

A

hydrolysis

137
Q

when an element loses an electron, commonly when it bonds with oxygen

A

oxidation

138
Q

absorption of water into some minerals (mainly clays) causes them to expand

A

hydration

139
Q

the ratio of surface area to volume of a material controls the rate of weathering. true or false

A

true

140
Q

Weathering tends to round off corners and leave things rougher in shape. true or false?

A

smoother, false

141
Q

hillslope materials

A

Colluvium

142
Q

weathered materials supported by stream flow

A

Alluvium

143
Q

swelling clay (used for leaning buildings = differential settlement where a portion of the subsurface foundation rests on incompetent or consolidated/semi-consolidated bed)

A

Montmorillonite

144
Q

layer of the soil that is Mostly organic matter such as decomposing leaves, humus or organic

A

O - organic

145
Q

layer of the soil that is Mostly minerals from parent material with organic matter incorporated

A

A - topsoil

146
Q

layer of the soil that is Leached of clay, minerals, and organic matter, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials – missing in some soils but often found in older soils and forest soils.

A

E - eluviated

147
Q

layer of the soil that is Rich in minerals that leached (moved down) from the A or E horizons and accumulated here

A

B - subsoil

148
Q

layer of the soil that is The deposit at Earth’s surface from
which the soil developed

A

C- parent material

149
Q

layer of the soil that is ) A mass of rock such as granite, basalt,
quartzite, limestone or sandstone that forms the parent
material for some soils

A

R - bedrock

150
Q

reddish soil rich in hematite and/or goethite

A

terra rosa

151
Q

highly dense solid, SI Fe O

A

hardpan

152
Q

formed in semi-arid conditions

A

duricrust

153
Q

karst feature of uneven groves or ridges

A

lapies

154
Q

shrinkage, plastic, and liquid limits for clays

A

Atterberg Limits

155
Q

erosion and transportation (relationship between the size of sediment and the velocity required to erode (lift it), transport it and deposit it.)

A

Hjulstrom Curve

156
Q

Minerals that form early (high temp) in Bowen’s reaction series are least stable. Exceptions are calcite and halite, which are highly susceptible to chemical weathering

A

Goldich dissolution series

157
Q

what is differential weathering?

A
  • Under the same set of climatic conditions, not all minerals and not all rocks will weather at the same rate. Some develop more joints and fractures, some undergo faster dissolution, some remain more-or-less intact.
158
Q

3 main sedimentary environments

A

terrestrial
shallow marine
deep marine

159
Q

gravity-driven flows (dry and wet) in what environment?

A

terrestrial environment

160
Q

fluid flows (tidal movements and wave induced currents) in what environment?

A

shallow marine environment

161
Q

suspension settling and unidirectional flow created by density currents in what environment?

A

deep marine

162
Q
  • are the outer margins of the continents, where continental crust transitions to oceanic crust
A

continental margins

163
Q

are geologically inactive regions located in some distance from plate boundaries.

A

passive continental margins

164
Q

Are located along convergent plate boundaries, where oceanic lithosphere is being subducted beneath the leading edge of a continent

A

active continental margin

165
Q
  • An environment where marine and non-marine process interacts
A

transitional environment

166
Q

salinity and circulation of seawater and by waves, currents and tides.

A

marine processes

167
Q

o area characteristic of positions close above, but more generally close below, sea level

A

littoral environment

168
Q

relatively narrow zone above normal high tide

A

Supralittoral zone (Supratidal)

169
Q

lies between high and low tide level.

A

intertidal zone

170
Q

this area is submerged most of the time and exposed briefly during extreme low tides around full and new moon events.

A

subtidal zone

171
Q
  • region of most of the sedimentary deposition
A

marine region

172
Q

two realms of marine

A

benthonic realm and pelagic realm

173
Q

a collective designation for all the bottom of the sea.

A

benthonic realm

174
Q

all the ocean water lying seaward of low— tide level

A

pelagic realm

175
Q

the coastal— ocean water overlying the continental shelves.

A

neritic province

176
Q

the blue— water regions overlying the deep-sea basins.

A

oceanic province

177
Q

Diagenesis vs. Metamorphism

A

o Diagenesis is the post-depositional process of turning sediments into a sedimentary rock.
o Metamorphism begins when there is a grain-grain interaction and materials are subject to temperature and pressure conditions greater than 150 deg C and 1 kbar.

178
Q

borderline between igneous and metamorphic rock classification due to partial melting.

A

migmatites

Environmental Geology (5 decks)

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