Earth Materials Flashcards
1
Q
the substance of which any physical object is composed
A
matter
2
Q
States of matter
A
solid
liquid
gas
3
Q
controlling factors of matter
A
temperature and pressure
4
Q
the make-up of solid matter on Earthj
A
atoms > elements > compounds > minerals > rocks
5
Q
fundamental building blocks
A
elements
6
Q
what is Goldschmidt’s classification?
A
a geochemical classification which groups the chemical elements according to their preferred host phases
7
Q
silicate loving, mainly consists of the highly reactive metals of the s and f-blocks
A
lithophiles
8
Q
iron-loving, high-density transition metals that tend to bond with metallic iron in the solid or molten state
A
siderophile
9
Q
sulfur-loving, poor metals, and heavier nonmetals that have a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with sulfur as highly insoluble sulfides
A
chalcophile
10
Q
gas loving, h, c, n noble gases, are defined as those that are found chiefly or exclusively in the form of gases
A
atmophile
11
Q
have in common increasing unpaired electrons
A
LREE - Light Rare Earth Materials
12
Q
have paired electrons (a clockwise and counter-clockwise spinning electron)
A
HREE - Heavy Rare Earth Materials
13
Q
builds elements, smallest particle that uniquely defines an element
A
atoms
14
Q
Protons + neutrons define the ___ of an atom
A
nucleus
15
Q
Layers of electrons that orbit around the nucleus
are called____
A
orbitals or energy-level shells
16
Q
atoms of the same element that have different mass numbers
A
isotopes
17
Q
protons + average # neutron
A
atomic weight
18
Q
= # protons + # neutrons
A
mass number
19
Q
an atom that has gained or lost an electron`
A
ion
20
Q
a loss of electrons, resulting in a positive (+) charge
A
cation
21
Q
a gain of electrons, resulting in a negative (-) charge
A
anion
22
Q
consists of elements that combine in a specific ratio
A
chemical compount
23
Q
smallest quantity of a compound is called a __
A
Molecule
24
Q
molecules are held together by __.
- formation of a compound by combining two or more elements
- manner in which electrons are distributed among
atoms
A
chemical bonding
25
In bonded atoms, electrons may be___,
_____, or _____.
lost, gained, hared
26
types of chemical bonding and describe
Ionic bonding: electrons are transferred between atoms forming attracting ions/ orderly arrangement of oppositely charged ions. bonds are moderately strong
Covalent bonding: electrons are shared between atoms, generally strong bonds
Metallic Bonding: electrons drift around from atom to atom, good conductors of electrical current, weaker, less common
Van der Waals bonding:
* sheets of covalently bonded atoms held together by
weak electrostatic forces
* very weak bond
27
Where electronegativity differences in transitional ionic–covalent bonds are smaller than 1.68, the bonds are primarily electron-_____ bonds.
sharing covalent
28
Where electronegativity differences are larger than 1.68, the bonds are primarily electron-___ bonds
transfer ionic
29
{1-exp[(-0.25)(E1-E2)2]} x 100
%IC (ionic character)
30
Calculate NaCl’s %ionic character.
Given:
Electronegativity of Na= 0.93
Electronegativity of Cl= 3.16
--
31
makes up solid matter on Earth
minerals
32
Definition of Minerals
naturally occurring
inorganic
definite chemical composition
ordered crystalline structure
homogenous solid
33
definition of a rock
a solid aggregate of minerals
34
diagnostic property/description of alabaster
massive
35
diagnostic property/description of selenite
bladed
36
diagnostic property/description of satin spar
fibrous
37
diagnostic property/description of enargite and luzonite
arsenosulfides
38
diagnostic property/description of Semi-Anthracite
form of coal
39
diagnostic property/description of dolimite
cast for fossils
40
diagnostic property/description of garnierite
nickel ore
41
diagnostic property/description of bornite
peacock ore, can be scratch by 5-cent copper
42
diagnostic property/description of copper concentrate
Cu, Fe, Mg , Au in powdered form for smelting into coppper wire
43
diagnostic property/description of granite
quartz, hornblende, k-felds
44
diagnostic property/description of olivine group: Forsterite (Fe) and Fayalite (Mg)
mantle consituents
45
diagnostic property/description of pyroxenes
90-deg cleav
46
diagnostic property/description of amphiboles
60-120 cleav
47
diagnostic property/description of micas
bird's eye extinction
48
Abundance of Oxygen in the crust
46.6%
49
Abundance of Silicon in the crust
27.7%
50
Abundance of Al in the crust
8.1%
51
Abundance of Fe in the crust
5%
52
Abundance of Ca in the crust
3.6%
53
Abundance of Na in the crust
2.8%
54
Abundance of K in the crust
2.6%
55
Abundance of Mg in the crust
2.1%
56
independent tetrahedron satisfied in charge and held together by cation
Nesosilicate - Si:O ratio – 1:4
57
single – 2 adjacent silica tetrahedral linked through shared oxygen ions
Inosilicate - 1:3
58
double – tetrahedral share 2, then 3 corner oxygens alternately
Inosilicate - 4:11
59
each tetrahedron shares a corner oxygen with 3 neighbors
Phyllosilicate - 2:5
60
continuous 3-dimensional network of tetrahedral sharing all 4 corners
Tectosilicate 1:2
61
tetrahedral pair by sharing one corner. No important rock-forming minerals
Sorosilicate 2:7
62
tetrahedral each share two corners to form rings
Cyclosilicate 1:3
63
Polymorphs vs. Isomorphs vs. Pseudomorphs
Polymorphs are minerals with the same chemical
composition but different crystal structures. The
conditions are such things as temperature (T) and
pressure (P)
Pseudomorphs Minerals taking crystal form of another, pre-existing mineral. Original crystal should be: Euhedral/Subhedral at the time of formation
The same structure but with different chemical
composition.
64
Polymorphs of AL2SiO5 - Kyanite
andulsite
sillimanite
65
Polymorphs of Carbon
Diamond
Graphite
66
polymorph of Sphalerite
wurtzite
67
polymorph of Pyrite
Marcasite
68
Polymorph of SiO2 - Quartz
Stishovite
Coesite
a-quartz
b quartz
cristobalite
tridymite
69
processes of pseudomorphs
Replacement- pre-existing atoms are replaced by
new mineral retaining its external crystal form
Pyrite can be replaced by Geothite
Fluorite by quartz
Loss of Constituent from original crystals
dissolution of carbonate form
azurite to produce native copper
Encrustation – the new mineral mimics the original mineral’s crystal form.
70
example of isomorph
continuous series of bowens reaction
71
Ionic substitution (also called solid solution) occurs
because some elements (ions) have the _____ and thus substitution for one another
in a crystal structure is possible.
same size and charge,
72
What mineral groups exhibit ionic substitution?
fayalite og forsterite
73
What are the different physical properties of a mineral
Color
Play of Colors (Asterism, Chatoyancy, Iridescence, Labradorescence, Opalescence)
Streak
Hardness (Mohs vs. Knoop vs.Vickers vs. Rosiwal Hardness Scale)
Tenacity (brittle, malleable, sectile, flexible, elastic)
Cleavage/Parting/Fracture/Striations
Luster (how light is reflected, e.g., vitreous, metallic/splendent, submetallic, resinous, pitchy, greasy, waxy, silky, pearly, adamantine, dull)
Diaphaneity or Opacity (opaque, transparent, translucent)
Density/Specific Gravity (How are they derived?)
Crystal Faces and Crystal Habits
Reaction to acid (HCl should be diluted i.e., 9 parts H2O and 1 part HCl)
Magnetism (Paramagnetism, Diamagnetism, Ferromagnetism-Ferrimagnetism)
Luminescence (Fluorescence, Phosphorescence, Thermoluminescence, Triboluminescence)
Electrical Properties (Pyroelectricity, Piezoelectricity)
Taste, Feel, Smell
74
What are idiochromatic and allochromatic minerals?
Allochromatic - other colored due to trace impurities in their composition or defects in their structure ex. quartz
Idiochromatic- self-colored due to their composition, is a constant and predictable component of the mineral
75
is caused by inclusions oriented according to the host
mineral’s crystal structure, which produces a six- sided, star -like
pattern as light is scattered by the inclusions at specific incident
angles.
asterism
76
specifically in fibrous minerals, a band of light moves
perpendicular to fibers esp. when curved.
chatoyancy
77
scattering of light, change of color in zones of
contrasting composition as the mineral is rotated.
iridescence
78
– the iridescence in some specimens of
plagioclase
labradorescence
79
the iridescence exhibited by opals
opalescence
80
Color of a substance in its powdered form. I
streak
81
is a way of predicting the chemical weathering rate of various minerals on the Earth’s surface
Goldich stability series
82
Bowens Reaction Series
describes temperatures at which different common silicate minerals change from liquid to solid phase (or solid to liquid)
83
Plagioclase series 100-0% An - continuous series
Anorthite
Bytownite
Labradorite
Andesine
Oligoclase
Albite
84
It is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to scratching
and abrasion, and is usually measured in comparison to
other minerals of known hardness
hardness
85
Mohs Scale
talc
gypsum
calcite
fluorite
apatite
orthoclase
quartz
topaz
corundum
diamond
86
defined as the manner in which minerals respond to short-term
stresses at normal surface temperatures and pressures.
tenacity
87
bent but return to their original shape when the stress is released
elastic
88
Specimens that can be bent without breaking when stressed but do not return to their original shape possess a tenacity called
felxible
89
Minerals such as native metals that are so plastic that they can be hammered into thin sheets are
malleable
90
can be drawn into a thin wire
ductile
91
materials respond to stress by deforming elastically by a small
percentage before fracturing after little or no plastic strain.
brittle
92
Minerals break along flat surfaces, irregular surfaces, or a combination of both. The flat breaks are called
cleavage planes
93
irregular breaks on minerals
fractures
94
is the splitting of minerals along twinning or pressure planes.
This only happens along well-defined planes of weakness and is not reproducible like cleavage.
parting
95
exhibit parallel sets of linear features called___ that appear as engraved ridges and/or grooves on mineral surfaces
striations
96
It is the appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light
luster
97
Diaphaneity or opacity depends on the amount of light
transmitted by a mineral specimen
Diaphaneity
98
are relatively flat, geometric surfaces generated
by mineral growth. If crystal faces are present, they represent an
external expression of the mineral’s internal crystal structure
crystal faces
99
is the characteristic external shape of an individual
crystal or aggregate of crystals. It is based on the relative
proportions of the crystals in three mutually perpendicular
directions (a, b and c) where a ≥ b ≥ c
crystal habit
100
differential euhedral, subhedral and anhedral
Mineral crystals completely enclosed by crystal faces are said to be euhedral.
Mineral crystals that are only partially enclosed by crystal faces are said tobe subhedral.
Mineral crystals that possess no crystal faces are said to be anhedral and record growth conditions that did not permit the development of crystal faces.
101
what does spar mean?
old mining or mineralogy term used to refer top crystals that have readily discernible
102
what is alloreiomorphic/xenomorphic, hypidiomorphic, and
idiomorphic/panidiomorphic?
- Review on Igneous Textures
a) Allotriomorphic-granular (xenomorphicgranular or aplitic or sugary or saccaharoidal ) - almost all of the constituents are anhedral
b) Hypidiomorphic-granular (hypautomorphic-granular or granitic) - some constituents are euhedral, some subhedra, and the rest anhedral
c) Panidiomorphic-granular (automorphicgranular) - the chief minerals are euhedral
103
When a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl(a)) is placed on the specimen, it fizzes or effervesces by releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas.
HCl should be diluted i.e., 9 parts H2O and one-part HCl
reaction to acid
104
, a response to an external magnetic field.
magnetism
105
four types of magnetism
A) Paramagnetism - contains magnetic ions that tend to align along an applied magnetic field but do not have a spontaneous magnetic order
B) Diamagnetism -weakly magnetic and can be separated from each other by their various degrees of magnetic susceptibility.
C) Ferromagnetism -large magnetic domains aligned all in the same direction, resulting in very large magnetic susceptibilities. Ferromagnetic materials do not exist inside the Earth but are present in meteorites.
D) Ferrimagnetism - In ferrimagnets the moments are in an antiparallel alignment, but they do not cancel. The best example of a ferrimagnetic mineral is magnetite (Fe3O4).
106
minerals emit light when subjected to an external source of energy
Luminescence
107
due to absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation
fluorescence
108
light emitted by a substance without combustion or perceptible heat.
phosphorescence
109
heat-induced luminescence
thermoluminescence
110
stress-induced luminescence
triboluminescence
111
characteristic of anisotropic minerals that lack a center of symmetry; the fact that one end of the crystal is different from the other allows an electric potential to be created across the crystal
Electrical Properties
112
is a phenomenon in which an increase in temperature induces an electric current that flows from one end of the crystal to the other.
Pyroelectricity
113
is similar but is produced by a pressure or stress applied to one end of the mineral.
Piezoelectricity
114
What are the different minerals/varieties belonging to the known silicate mineral groups?
Discontinuous series: Olivine, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Mica, Feldspar, and Quartz
115
Why Does Quartz Have So Many Varieties?
- The main reason is the different formation environments. Because of the different temperatures and pressure during the quartz formation, different impurities can get into the quartz structure.
- Different colors of quartz varieties are explained by impurities of various elements (Ti, Fe, Mg, Mn, Al) and inclusions of other minerals.
116
Differentiate weathering, alteration, erosion, and denudation.
denudation- the act or process of removing surface layers
erosion - is the name for the processes that both break down rocks ( weathering) and carry away the breakdown products ( transportation
change in the mineralogic composition of a rock brought about by physical or chemical means
weathering - in-situ physical disintegration and chemical breakdown of rocks
117
two main processes of weathering
physical and chemical weathering
118
loose fragments of rocks
or minerals broken off of bedrock,
minerals that precipitate directly out of
water, and shells of organisms
* Sediment
119
occurs when sediment settles out as
winds/water current die down, or as
glaciers melt.
deposition/ sedimentation
120
Formation of cracks in rocks.
jointing
121
form in rocks due to, stretching, or cooling (contraction
joint
122
when deep rocks are exposed, the removal of
overburden causes sub-horizontal cracks to form causing the rock to easily peel away like layers of an onion. Also called sheet joints or unloading joints and are common in exposed batholiths
exfoliation joints
123
water fills cracks, freezes, expands, and forces cracks to
open causing them to grow. Can lift large blocks.
frost wedging
124
same as frost wedging except that roots pry open the cracks.
root wedging
125
salt crystals form when
evaporating water flows through rocks.
The salt crystals pry open the cracks
salt wedging
126
mechanical weathering processes create an apron or
pile of debris at the margins of slopes called_____
talus.
127
differential talus and scree
talus (sand/silt sized particles) and scree (pebbles/cobble in size, usually angular)
128
______ is the primary basis for distinguishing among various detrital sedimentary rocks.
particle size
129
sizes of boulder, cobble, pebble, granule, sand, silt, clay
boulder - >256mm
cobble - 64-256mm
pebble - 4-64mm
granule- 2-4mm
sand - 1/16 -2mm
silt - 1/256- 1/16mm
clay <1/256mm
130
refers to the degree of similarity in particle size in a
sedimentary rock
sorting
131
A particle’s shape in terms of its ____ (degree to which
edges and corners are rounded) and ____ (how close
the shape is to a sphere)
angularity; sphericity
132
Highly rounded grains indicate that a great deal of abrasion
and hence a great deal of transport has occurred. true or false?
true
133
Chemical weathering is typically strongest in warm wet climates. true or false?
true
134
types of chemical weathering
dissolution
hydrolysis
oxidation
hydration
135
Primarily affects carbonates and salts when a chemical reaction breaks down minerals into new compounds
dissolution
136
water acts to ‘loosen’ chemical bonds to break down minerals. Works faster in slightly acidic water
hydrolysis
137
when an element loses an electron, commonly when it bonds with oxygen
oxidation
138
absorption of water into some minerals (mainly clays) causes them to expand
hydration
139
the ratio of surface area to volume of a material controls the rate of weathering. true or false
true
140
Weathering tends to round off corners and leave things rougher in shape. true or false?
smoother, false
141
hillslope materials
Colluvium
142
weathered materials supported by stream flow
Alluvium
143
swelling clay (used for leaning buildings = differential settlement where a portion of the subsurface foundation rests on incompetent or consolidated/semi-consolidated bed)
Montmorillonite
144
layer of the soil that is Mostly organic matter such as decomposing leaves, humus or organic
O - organic
145
layer of the soil that is Mostly minerals from parent material with organic matter incorporated
A - topsoil
146
layer of the soil that is Leached of clay, minerals, and organic matter, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials – missing in some soils but often found in older soils and forest soils.
E - eluviated
147
layer of the soil that is Rich in minerals that leached (moved down) from the A or E horizons and accumulated here
B - subsoil
148
layer of the soil that is The deposit at Earth’s surface from
which the soil developed
C- parent material
149
layer of the soil that is ) A mass of rock such as granite, basalt,
quartzite, limestone or sandstone that forms the parent
material for some soils
R - bedrock
150
reddish soil rich in hematite and/or goethite
terra rosa
151
highly dense solid, SI Fe O
hardpan
152
formed in semi-arid conditions
duricrust
153
karst feature of uneven groves or ridges
lapies
154
shrinkage, plastic, and liquid limits for clays
Atterberg Limits
155
erosion and transportation (relationship between the size of sediment and the velocity required to erode (lift it), transport it and deposit it.)
Hjulstrom Curve
156
Minerals that form early (high temp) in Bowen’s reaction series are least stable. Exceptions are calcite and halite, which are highly susceptible to chemical weathering
Goldich dissolution series
157
what is differential weathering?
- Under the same set of climatic conditions, not all minerals and not all rocks will weather at the same rate. Some develop more joints and fractures, some undergo faster dissolution, some remain more-or-less intact.
158
3 main sedimentary environments
terrestrial
shallow marine
deep marine
159
gravity-driven flows (dry and wet) in what environment?
terrestrial environment
160
fluid flows (tidal movements and wave induced currents) in what environment?
shallow marine environment
161
suspension settling and unidirectional flow created by density currents in what environment?
deep marine
162
- are the outer margins of the continents, where continental crust transitions to oceanic crust
continental margins
163
are geologically inactive regions located in some distance from plate boundaries.
passive continental margins
164
Are located along convergent plate boundaries, where oceanic lithosphere is being subducted beneath the leading edge of a continent
active continental margin
165
- An environment where marine and non-marine process interacts
transitional environment
166
salinity and circulation of seawater and by waves, currents and tides.
marine processes
167
o area characteristic of positions close above, but more generally close below, sea level
littoral environment
168
relatively narrow zone above normal high tide
Supralittoral zone (Supratidal)
169
lies between high and low tide level.
intertidal zone
170
this area is submerged most of the time and exposed briefly during extreme low tides around full and new moon events.
subtidal zone
171
- region of most of the sedimentary deposition
marine region
172
two realms of marine
benthonic realm and pelagic realm
173
a collective designation for all the bottom of the sea.
benthonic realm
174
all the ocean water lying seaward of low— tide level
pelagic realm
175
the coastal— ocean water overlying the continental shelves.
neritic province
176
the blue— water regions overlying the deep-sea basins.
oceanic province
177
Diagenesis vs. Metamorphism
o Diagenesis is the post-depositional process of turning sediments into a sedimentary rock.
o Metamorphism begins when there is a grain-grain interaction and materials are subject to temperature and pressure conditions greater than 150 deg C and 1 kbar.
178
borderline between igneous and metamorphic rock classification due to partial melting.
migmatites
