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YEAR 2 Developmental > Early multi-word speech: Constructivist approaches > Flashcards

Early multi-word speech: Constructivist approaches Flashcards

1
Q

Children put words together to create…?

A

Multiword utterances/ multiword speech

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2
Q

At what age do children create multiword utterances/multiword speech?

A

Between 18-months to 2 years of age

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3
Q

What type of utterances do 18-months to 2 year olds create?

A

Multiword utterances/multiword speech

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4
Q

What are the 2 broad theoretical approaches which attempt to explain multiword utterances/ multiword speech?

A

1) Nativist (or
generativist) accounts

2) Constructivist (or usage-based) accounts

Simply = Nature vs Nurture

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5
Q

What is syntax?

A

The ways in which a language allows words to be combined

Simply = rules and regulations of putting words together in sentences

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6
Q

The ways in which a language allows words to be combined

Simply = rules and regulations of putting words together in sentences

This is known as…?

A

Syntax

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7
Q

What does syntax help us understand?

A

Understand between speakers

e.g. ‘who did what to whom’

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8
Q

Enables understanding between speakers

e.g. ‘who did what to whom’

What does this statement apply to?

A

Syntax

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9
Q

What allows grammar productivity (with a finite set of words we can produce an infinite number of possible sentences)?

A

Syntax

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10
Q

What are the 2 main purposes of syntax?

A

1) Enables understanding between speakers

e.g. ‘who did what to whom’

2) Allows grammar productivity – with a finite set of words we can produce an infinite number of possible sentences

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11
Q

Name the 3 types of sentence structure

A

1) Grammatical category of words

2) Grammatical role of participants

3) Meaning

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12
Q

What does a grammatical category of words sentence structure look like?

A

Noun phrase -> Verb -> Noun Phrase

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13
Q

What does a grammatical role of participants sentence structure look like?

A

Subject —> Object

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14
Q

What type of sentence structure follows this pattern?

Subject —> Object

A

Grammatical role of participants

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15
Q

What does a meaning sentence structure look like?

A

Agent -> Action -> Patient

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16
Q

What type of sentence structure follows this pattern?

Agent -> Action -> Patient

A

Meaning

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17
Q

What type of sentence structure follows this pattern?

Noun phrase -> Verb -> Noun Phrase

A

Grammatical category of words

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18
Q

What is an agent?

A

The one doing the action

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19
Q

What is a patient?

A

The reciepient of the action

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20
Q

Language is _____ specific

A

Species-specific

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21
Q

Language is _____ universal

A

Species-universal

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22
Q

What are the 2 characteristics of language?

A

1) It is species-specific
2) It is species-universal

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23
Q

How is language species-specific?

A

There is little evidence that other primates can acquire syntax even with intensive training

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24
Q

There is little evidence that other primates can acquire syntax even with intensive training

This is evidence for…?

A

Species-specific (language)

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25
Q

How is language species-universal?

A

Virtually all children have
acquired the majority of the grammar of their
language by 5yrs

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26
Q

Virtually all children have
acquired the majority of the grammar of their
language by 5yrs

This is evidence for?

A

Species-universal (language)

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27
Q

What are early word combinations like?

List 4 points

A

1) Mainly content words

2) Refers to here-and-now, easily understood in context

3) Creative (e.g. More sing, All gone sticky, other one spoon)

4) Observes adult word order (e.g. truck gone vs. gone truck)

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28
Q

Early word combinations are mainly content words

What are these?

A

Words that communicate the essence of the meaning but are missing little words that are less critical (e.g. a, is, the)

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29
Q

Words that communicate the essence of the meaning but are missing little words that are less critical (e.g. a, is, the)

This is known as…?

A

Content words

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30
Q

In early word combinations, children observe word order

What does this mean?

A

Children typically put words in the order they’ve heard adults say them in

Thus, sentence/word order is not entirely random

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31
Q

Children typically put words in the order they’ve heard adults say them in

Thus, sentence/word order is not entirely random

This is known as…?

A

Observing adult word order

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32
Q

Early word combinations involve:

1) Mainly content words

2) Refers to here-and-now, easily understood in context

3) Creative (e.g. More sing, All gone sticky, other one spoon)

4) Observes adult word order (e.g. truck gone vs. gone truck)

What does this suggest?

A

Suggests children have some kind of organising principles

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33
Q

What are lexical (word-based) rules?

A

Rules that are item-specific/ based on individual words or
schemas (sets of words)

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34
Q

Rules that are item-specific/ based on individual words or
schemas (sets of words)

This is known as…?

A

Lexical (word-based) rules

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35
Q

Give 2 examples of lexical (word-based) rules

A
  1. “Get” + X item
  2. “Where’s the” + X item
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36
Q

When children hear an adult say the phrase “Get” + X item, what can they assume from it?

A

If you want something, you can put the word “get” first in front of the item you want

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37
Q

Children experience a limited variety of utterances until …?

A

They are able to generalise between schemas

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38
Q

Children experience a limited variety of utterances until they are able to generalise between schemas

How do they do this?

A

They gradually link schemas together to develop adult grammar

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39
Q

What are syntactic (grammatical) rules?

A

Rules abstract (based on grammatical categories)

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40
Q

Rules abstract (based on grammatical categories)

This is known as…?

A

Syntactic (grammatical) rules

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41
Q

Grammatical rules are known as…?

a. Syntactic rules
b. Lexical rules

A

a. Syntactic rules

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42
Q

Word-based rules are known as…?

a. Syntactic rules
b. Lexical rules

A

b. Lexical rules

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43
Q

Rules item-specific

a. Syntactic rules
b. Lexical rules

A

b. Lexical rules

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44
Q

Rules abstract

a. Syntactic rules
b. Lexical rules

A

a. Syntactic rules

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45
Q

What do nativists believe about syntactic rules?

A

Children are aware of these rules from birth

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46
Q

What do constructivists believe about syntactic rules?

A

Children learn there rules over time and experience

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47
Q

Give 2 examples of syntactic (grammatical) rules

A

1) Verb + Object

e.g. Get truck, Causes problems

2) Subject + Verb

e.g. She laughs, It’s raining, Confident people succeed

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48
Q

Allow all utterances possible in the adult language

a. Syntactic rules
b. Lexical rules

A

a. Syntactic rules

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49
Q

Limited variety of utterances

a. Syntactic rules
b. Lexical rules

A

b. Lexical rules

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50
Q

Syntactic (grammatical) rules are not restricted

What does this allow children to do?

A

Allow all utterances possible in the adult language

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51
Q

True or False?

Children’s early multiword utterances are random and are simply imitations of what they have heard

A

False

Children’s early multiword utterances are not random, nor simply imitations of what they have heard

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52
Q

True or False?

Children learn language, but other species do not
demonstrate the same impressive abilities

A

True

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53
Q

What is the Constructivist approach to language?

List 3 points

A

1) Grammar is used for communication

2) Infants are motivated to learn to communicate

3) Grammar can be learned using general cognitive learning mechanisms

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54
Q

1) Grammar is used for communication

2) Infants are motivated to learn to communicate

3) Grammar can be learned using general cognitive learning mechanisms

Are these following the Nativist or Constructivist approach?

A

Constructivist approach

55
Q

Grammar can be learned using general cognitive
learning mechanisms

What are general cognitive learning mechanism?

A

Mechanisms used to learn other things other than grammar

56
Q

Mechanisms used to learn other things other than grammar

This is known as…?

A

General cognitive
learning mechanisms

57
Q

Grammar can be learned using general cognitive
learning mechanisms

Give 3 examples of this

A

1) Communicative intention-reading

2) Drawing analogies
(simply = drawing similarities between things)

3) Distributional learning
(simply = pattern finding)

58
Q

What happens when children draw analogies?

A

They draw similarities between things

59
Q

What happens when children perform distributional learning?

A

They find patterns in grammar/sentences

60
Q

Which approach emphasises on the role of routines in language learning?

a. Nativist
b. Constructivist

A

b. Constructivist

61
Q

How can routines help children learn languages?

A

Routines allow children to predict what happens next and therefore what the language they are hearing might refer to

62
Q

How can repetitive chunks of language help children learn linguistics and meaning?

A

After routines, repetitive chunks of language can then be learned in context where the relation between linguistic form and meaning is more transparent

63
Q

Repetitive chunks of language can be learned in context where …?

A

The relation between linguistic form and meaning is more transparent

64
Q

It is best to repeat what the child says when they are reading a picture book

Why?

A

Because it allows the infant to connect the pictures in the book to the words they are saying

65
Q

What kind of evidence would support a
constructivist/ usage-based approach?

List 3

A

1) Children begin with lexically-based linguistic
representations

2) High frequency items are learned early

3) Only gradual generalisation across exemplars to create more abstract syntactic categories and rules

66
Q

Children begin with _______ linguistic representations

a. Lexical based
b. Syntactic based

A

a. Lexical based

67
Q

________ items are learned early

a. High frequency
b. Low frequency

A

a. High frequency

68
Q

Children experience only ___________ across exemplars to create more abstract syntactic categories and rules

A

Gradual generalisation

69
Q

What is the verb island hypothesis?

A

It claims that young children’s verbs are islands, each developing its own mini-syntax independently of other verbs.

70
Q

It claims that young children’s verbs are islands, each developing its own mini-syntax independently of other verbs.

This is known as…?

A

The verb island hypothesis

71
Q

According to the verb island hypothesis, knowledge of grammar are tied to individual verbs until …. years old?

A

2 1/2-3yrs old

72
Q

According to the verb island hypothesis, 2 1/2-3 year olds have knowledge of …?

A

Grammar that are tied to individual verbs

73
Q

According to the verb island hypothesis, a child initially is unable to …?

A

Generalise between verbs with similar meanings or used in similar sentence types

74
Q

With familiar verbs (e.g. chasing), 2-yr-olds are able to describe actions correctly to explain who is chasing, and whom is being chased

e.g. Frog is chasing the lion
e.g. Lion is chasing the frog

This is evidence for…?

A

The verb island hypothesis

75
Q

With ________ verbs (e.g. chasing), 2-yr-olds are able to describe actions correctly to explain who is chasing, and whom is being chased

e.g. Frog is chasing the lion
e.g. Lion is chasing the frog

a. Unfamiliar
b. Familiar

A

b. Familiar

76
Q

With familiar verbs (e.g. chasing), ____ are able to describe actions correctly to explain who is chasing, and whom is being chased

e.g. Frog is chasing the lion
e.g. Lion is chasing the frog

a. 1 1/2 year olds
b. 6 month olds
c. 1 year olds
d. 2 year olds

A

d. 2 year olds

77
Q

With familiar verbs (e.g. chasing), 2-yr-olds are able to …?

A

Describe actions correctly to explain who is chasing, and whom is being chased

e.g. Frog is chasing the lion
e.g. Lion is chasing the frog

78
Q

With unfamiliar (novel) verbs (e.g. weefing), before 3yrs old, children struggle to explain who is doing what to whom

e.g. Frog is weefing the lion
e.g. Lion is weefing the frog

This is evidence for…?

A

The verb island hypothesis

79
Q

With ______ (novel) verbs (e.g. weefing), before 3yrs old, children struggle to explain who is doing what to whom

e.g. Frog is weefing the lion
e.g. Lion is weefing the frog

a. Familiar
b. Unfamiliar

A

b. Unfamiliar

80
Q

With unfamiliar (novel) verbs (e.g. weefing), before _____ old, children struggle to explain who is doing what to whom

e.g. Frog is weefing the lion
e.g. Lion is weefing the frog

a. 2 years old
b. 3 years old
c. 4 years old
5. 5 years old

A

b. 3 years old

81
Q

With unfamiliar (novel) verbs (e.g. weefing), before 3yrs old, children …?

A

Struggle to explain who is doing what to whom

e.g. Frog is weefing the lion
e.g. Lion is weefing the frog

82
Q

True or False?

Children under 3 years old are great at generalising verbs

A

False

Children under 3 years old are not great at generalising verbs

83
Q

Children under 3 years old are not great at generalising verbs

This is evidence for…?

A

The verb island hypothesis

84
Q

What are the 4 evidence for limited lexical constructions?

A

1) Children’s early utterances are based around individual lexical items (words) but not exclusively verbs

2) ‘X’ represents a set of possible words used in the slot

3) Any high frequency word / group of words can form the basis for organisation of the child’s linguistic system

4) The constructions children learn reflect the frequency of particular patterns in the input

85
Q

The constructions children learn reflect …?

A

The frequency of particular patterns in the input

86
Q

Any _______ frequency word / group of words can form the basis for organisation of the child’s linguistic system

a. High
b. Low

A

a. High

87
Q

There is good evidence that children’s early
utterances are more restricted than those of
adults

True or False?

A

True

88
Q

How do children link up their lexically-based
constructions to form a more adult-like grammar?

List 3 points

A

1) Structure combining
2) Semantic analogy
3) Distributional learning

89
Q

1) Structure combining
2) Semantic analogy
3) Distributional learning

These strategies help children form more adult-like grammar by…?

A

Linking up their lexically-based construction

90
Q

What is structure combining?

A

Learning mini utterances and joining them up to create larger utterances

91
Q

Learning mini utterances and joining them up to create larger utterances

This is known as…?

A

Structure combining

92
Q

How do children’s utterances build on what they have previously said?

Describe an experiment that investigated this

A

1) Dense diary study of a single child for 6 weeks at 2;0

2) Recorded for 5 hours/week, and the child had a written diary of all new their utterances kept by their mother

3) All utterances on the last hour-long recording noted – ‘Target’

4) All previous recordings searched for the closest match – ‘Source’

5) Experimenter identified what changes required to change closest matching utterance - the ‘source’ - into the ‘target’ utterance (operations)

93
Q

Experimenter identified what changes were required to change the closest matching utterance - the ‘source’ - into the ‘target’ utterance (operations)

e.g.

Target utterance = I got the butter

Source utterance = I got the door

What would be the operation needed to achieve the target utterance from the source?

a. Drop
b. Addition
c. Substitution

A

c. Substitution

94
Q

Experimenter identified what changes required to change closest matching utterance - the ‘source’ - into the ‘target’ utterance (operations)

e.g.

Target utterance = It’s burning here

Source utterance = It’s burning

What would be the operation needed to achieve the target utterance from the source?

a. Drop
b. Addition
c. Substitution

A

b. Addition

95
Q

Experimenter identified what changes required to change closest matching utterance - the ‘source’ - into the ‘target’ utterance (operations)

e.g.

Target utterance = And horse

Source utterance = And a horse

What would be the operation needed to achieve the target utterance from the source?

a. Drop
b. Addition
c. Substitution

A

a. Drop

96
Q

What are the 3 operations to achieve target utterance from source utterance?

A

1) Substitution
2) Addition
3) Drop

97
Q

Experimenter identified what changes required to change closest matching utterance - the ‘source’ - into the ‘target’ utterance (operations)

What were the results of this study?

List 8 points

A

1) 295 multiword utterances

2) 186 repetitions (63%)

3) 158 repetitions of something child said previously

4) 28 immediate repetitions of mother

5) 109 novel utterances (37%, of these ¾ single operation change)

6) 68 substitutions + 12 add on + 1 drop

7) 22 utterances required 2 operations, e.g. add on + substitution

e.g. Where’s Daddy’s work?
e.g. Where’s my Daddy’s cup of tea

8) 6 utterances required 3 or more operations (substitute, drop, add)

e.g. I can’t put it back on
e.g. I don’t put it (___) on there

98
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many multiword utterances were there?

a. 295
b. 255
c. 235
d. 275

A

a. 295

99
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many repetitions were there?

a. 155
b. 186
c. 202
d. 197

A

b. 186

100
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many repetitions of something the child said previously were there?

a. 122
b. 179
c. 210
d. 158

A

d. 158

101
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many immediate repetitions of the mother’s words were there?

a. 56
b. 28
c. 19
d. 32

A

b. 28

102
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many novel utterances were there?

a. 98
b. 65
c. 109
d. 122

A

c. 109

103
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many substitutions were there?

a. 59
b. 62
c. 68
d. 74

A

c. 68

104
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many additions were there?

a. 12
b. 24
c. 7
d. 21

A

a. 12

105
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many drops were there?

a. 10
b. 30
c. 9
d. 1

A

d. 1

106
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many utterances required 2 operations?

a. 54
b. 38
c. 22
d. 19

A

c. 22

107
Q

In a study investigating multiword utterances, how many utterances required 3 or more operations?

a. 2
b. 6
c. 9
d. 13

A

b. 6

108
Q

Out of 295 multiword utterances, how may were repetitions?

a. 75%
b. 56%
c. 63%
d. 91%

A

c. 63%

109
Q

Out of 109 multiword utterances, how may were 3/4 single operation change?

a. 25%
b. 12%
c. 49%
d. 37%

A

d. 37%

110
Q

Many of the child’s apparently complex utterances are based around ______ or small changes to what
she has said before

A

Repetitions

111
Q

Most changes involve simple _______ within a lexically-based frame, or the ______ or ______ of a single word

A

a. substitutions
b. addition
c. subtraction

112
Q

Most changes involve simple substitutions within a lexically-based frame, or the addition or subtraction of a single word

What does this suggest?

A

Children operate with an extensive inventory of specific utterances, and fairly limited mechanisms for altering these utterances to match the demands of the discourse context

113
Q

Children need to learn a number of verbs before they can recognise similarities between them and begin to build
more general schemas

This is known as…?

A

Semantic analogy

114
Q

True or False?

It is more difficult for children to start joining things together if there is a similar meaning

A

False

It is easier for children to start joining things together if there is a similar meaning

115
Q

What is semantic analogy in language learning?

A

Suggests children need to learn a number of verbs before they can recognise similarities between them and begin to build more general schemas

Commonalities reinforced, differences forgotten

116
Q

What is the evidence for semantic analogy?

A

Repeating sequences

117
Q

Describe an experiment involving repeating sequences to investigate semantic analogy

List 2 points

A

1) 2 & 3-yr-olds asked to repeat 4-word sequences

e.g.
[FRAME]
Back in the

[SLOT]
’box/case/town’ (higher similarity)

vs

[FRAME]
It’s time for

[SLOT]
‘lunch/soup/drums‘ (lower similarity)

2) Manipulated 3-word frame by similarity of meaning of items in 4th ‘slot’

118
Q

1) 2 & 3-yr-olds asked to repeat 4-word sequences

e.g.
[FRAME]
Back in the

[SLOT]
’box/case/town’ (higher similarity)

vs

[FRAME]
It’s time for

[SLOT]
‘lunch/soup/drums‘ (lower similarity)

2) Manipulated 3-word frame by similarity of meaning of items in 4th ‘slot’

What were the results of this study?

A

Children made fewer errors when items that normally occur in the slot are more similar

119
Q

Children made fewer errors when items that normally occur in the slot are more similar

What does this suggest?

A

Suggests an overlap in
meaning helps build flexible constructions

120
Q

True or False?

Sentences with word slots that have similar meaning make it more difficult for children to learn construction

A

False

Sentences with word slots that have similar meaning make it easier for children to learn construction

121
Q

What is distributional learning?

A

The ability to learn the co-occurrence characteristics of the input, i.e. which words occur together or in similar contexts

122
Q

The ability to learn the co-occurrence characteristics of the input, i.e. which words occur together or in similar contexts

This is known as…?

A

Distributional learning

123
Q

Give 4 examples of distributional learning

A

1) Verb-ing/-ed/s

e.g. walking/walked/walks

pattern = words ending with ing, ed or s indicate a doing word/verb

2) Noun-s/’s

e.g. dogs/dog’s; cats/cat’s

pattern = words ending with s or ‘s indicate plural or belonging

3) Plural

e.g. Why are the tigers eating?

pattern = use are when noun is plural

4) Singular

e.g. Why is the dog running?

pattern = use is when noun is singular

124
Q

Describe experimental evidence for distributional learning

List 3 points

A

1) 2-yr-olds exposed to multiple transitive sentences of form X is Verb-ing Y with familiar verbs

2) There were 2 conditions:

  • Noun Phrase only condition – all Xs and Ys are lexical nouns

e.g. The cat is chasing the mouse

  • Mixed condition – Xs and Ys are combination of lexical nouns and pronouns

e.g. The cat is chasing the mouse / He is chasing him

3) Children taught novel verb (This is called dacking) to describe a new action between two participants

4) Asked What’s happening here? to elicit description

125
Q

What were the results of the experimental evidence for distributional learning?

A

Pronouns helped children extract a more abstract representation of the Subject-Verb-Object sentence
structure for use with novel (unfamiliar) verbs

Simply = Producing partial utterance mentioning just one participant helped children show generalisation of the X is V-ing Y

e.g. The dog is dacking the lion
vs
e.g. He is dacking him

126
Q

Pronouns helped children extract a more abstract representation of the Subject-Verb-Object sentence
structure for use with novel (unfamiliar) verbs

Why?

A

Because all you need to do is change the verb in the middle

If X is a pronoun and Y is a pronoun, all you need to do is substitute “dacking” to a different verb

127
Q

Studies of children’s language production suggest early language is not organised around …?

A

The same categories and rules as used by adult speakers

128
Q

Evidence for gradual generalisations are based on …?

List 2 things

A

1) Similarities in form
2) Meaning of sentences

129
Q

Children begin to combine words together at ______ months

a. 12-14 months
b. 14-18 months
c. 18-24 months
d. 6-12 months

A

c. 18-24 months

130
Q

Constructivist theorists argue that children access meaning and learn to combine words by…?

A

Interpreting the intentions of their interlocutors

Simply = From hearing language used in predictable contexts

131
Q

Constructivist theorists argue that children are motivated by _____ to access meaning and learn

A

Communicative function

132
Q

Children build up grammar by ….?

List 2 points

A

1) Starting with more limited scope rules (e.g. lexical rules) than those used by adults

2) Using general cognitive mechanisms to generalise

133
Q

What are the 3 main critical evaluations of constructionist approach?

A

1) Production studies are difficult for children

2) Do production studies underestimate how abstract children’s knowledge of sentence structure really is?

3) Exactly how sentence structures become gradually more abstract over development is not clearly specified

134
Q

Why are production studies difficult for children?

A

Because it requires children to produce utterances

It requires significant
memory load in remembering and recalling novel words,
planning entire sentences and not being too shy to speak

YEAR 2 Developmental (5 decks)

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