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101 Bio > Dr Nanetti’s Lectures > Flashcards

Dr Nanetti’s Lectures Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the main parts of a prokaryote?

A

Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Capsule
Cell wall
Circular DNA
Flagellum
Cytoplasm
Plasmids
Ribosomes (70s)

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2
Q

What are the main parts of a eukaryote?

A

Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Golgi body
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Smooth ER
Mitochondria
Ribosomes (80s)
Nucleus

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3
Q

What are the differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes have circular DNA/Nucleoids whilst eukaryotes have a nucleus

Prokaryotes have a cell wall and capsule whilst eukaryotes only have a cell wall

There are organelles in eukaryotes as well as compartmentalisation in eukaryotes

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4
Q

What makes up the cytoskeleton?

A

Microfilaments - which support cell shape
Intermediate filaments - which provide strength
Microtubules - which provide force and movement

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5
Q

Name the parts which make up the nucleus

A

Nuclear envelope - provides an inner and outer section to the nucleus
Nuclear pores - regulate movement of molecules
Nucleus lamina - provide support and regulates DNA replication
Nucleolus - Synthesises ribosomal RNA and where subunits assemble
Chromatin

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6
Q

What is the endomembrane system?

A

It is a system which connects the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, vesicles and lysosomes by continuous membranes which acts as a secretory pathway of proteins

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7
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Large subunits sit on their membranes. It’s involved in synthesis, sorting and packaging of proteins

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8
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Part of the production of lipids and the detoxification of drugs

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9
Q

What is the function of the Golgi body

A

They modify proteins and lipids and play a part in sorting and exporting proteins

They are made up of setbacks of cisternae

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10
Q

What is the function of a lysosome?

A

Intracellulair waste bin. Digests worn out organelles, cytoplasm and microorganisms after phagocytosis. They contain enzymes for digestion such as protease or nuclease

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11
Q

What is the function of a vesicle?

A

It is part of the cell transport mechanism, it is basically just a mini bilipid ball which hold anything being transported in it

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12
Q

What is the function of a peroxisome?

A

It is the degradation of fatty acids and amino acids by oxidation. It also decomposes H2O2 using catalase wand turns it into water and O2

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13
Q

What is the function of a mitochondria?

A

They make ATP using the electron transfer chain, it is the site of metabolic reaction and regulates apoptosis (cell suicide - happens in the intermembranal space)

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14
Q

What is DNA made up of?

A

A deoxyribose (2’ Carbon) molecule which is attached to a phosphate group (on the 5’) and a nitrogenous base (on the 1’ C)

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15
Q

What are the complimentary base pairs

A

DNA: A to T and G to C

RNA: A to U and G to C

Purines always go to pyrimidines. A and G are purines, as they have a double ring

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16
Q

How many H bonds are in the A to T/U base pairs?

A

2 H bonds

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17
Q

How many H bonds attach C to G base pairs

A

3 H bonds

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18
Q

How are antiparallel sequences written

A

5’-ATC GAT TGA-3’
3’-TAG CTA ACT-5’

A group of 3 is a codon

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19
Q

What packs DNA molecules into chromatin?

A

Hi stones

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20
Q

Describe the first step of DNA replication (Fork formation)

A

Helicase begins the process by splitting the DNA into the fork formation at the origin sequence. Primase makes a small piece of RNA called a primer which acts as a starting point for the creation of the new sequence

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21
Q

Describe the second step of DNA replication (initiation)

A
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22
Q

What are microorganisms?

A

Organism too small to be seen by the eye

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23
Q

What are the major groups of microbes

A

Bacteria
Fungi
Parasites
Micro algae
Viruses

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24
Q

What are the two types of cellular microorganisms?

A

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic

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25
Q

What are the microorganisms without a cellular structure

A

Acellular

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26
Q

Less than 1% of microbes cause diseases (pathogens)

A
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27
Q

What are the types of shapes bacteria come in?

A

Coccus - Ball
Bacillus - Rod
Vibrio - curved
Coccobacillus - oval
Spirillum - rigid spiral
Spirochete- flexible

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28
Q

What is peptidoglycan

A

It’s a rigid multilayer network made of linear chains of disaccharide units (NAG + NAM) it’s an alternating copolymer. Attached to NAM is a tetrapeptide chain which is involved in cross bridges.

Chains are linked by peptide cross bridges

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29
Q

What are the two sections of fungi?

A

Yeasts and moulds (pluricellular)

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30
Q

What are the two types of eukaryotes?

A

Protozoa and helminths (pluricellular)

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31
Q

Viruses replicate by taking over cells to create new particles

A
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32
Q

What are prions?

A

Simpler infectious particles made up of only proteins

33
Q

What does the plasma membrane of a bacteria have differently ?

A

No cholesterol, instead contains hapanoids (similar to cholesterol)

Can have mesosomes which are infoldings of the membrane

34
Q

What are the two classifications of cell wall

A

GRAM+ and GRAM-

35
Q

What does penicillin target in a bacteria

A

The cross bridges of tetrapeptides

36
Q

What is the defining factor of Gram+

A

Is a thick structure of peptidoglycan, separated by periplasmic space which contains enzymes which break down molecules too big to pass

Contains techoic acids which are made up of an alcohol and phosphate group. They regulate the movement of cations.

37
Q

What is in a Gram- structure

A

Has a thinner peptidoglycan layer, more complex and susceptible to mechanical breaking.

Has an additional layer of lipopolysaccharide which is it’s phosphobilayer. Along with the bilayer are purines which are pores that allow the passage of molecules

38
Q

What is the staining technique for gram staining?

A

Add crystal violet, then iodine, then ethyl alcohol then safranin.

Positive will be purple as the thick peptidoglycan layer is dehydrated by the alcohol which forms crystals so the dye stays

The negative will go pink to the counter stain as the alcohol dissolves the outer membrane which leaves holes

39
Q

What is glycocalix

A

It is the capsule or slime layer. The final outer layer.

40
Q

Flagellum are appendages which propel the bacteria using ATP.

A
41
Q

What does fimbriae do?

A

Hairlike appendages which allow for attachments

42
Q

Bacterial cell cycle

A
  1. Cell elongates which enlarges its volume and DNA is replicates
  2. Cell wall and plasma membrane begin to constrict
  3. Cross-wall forms completely, separating the two DNA copies
  4. Cells separate into two complete bacteria
43
Q

LAG, LOG, STATIONARY, DEATH GRAPH

A

Lag - adapting and metabolising getting ready to divide
Log - Cell have an exponential increase
Stationary - Deaths=Replication
Death phase - Death over replication

44
Q

N0 x 2^number of generations

A
45
Q

What are biofilms?

A

Slimes or hydrogels that adhere to surfaces. Big colony that share nutrients and shelter bacteria from environment

46
Q

What are the general requirements for bacteria growth

A

Physical - pH, temperature, osmotic pressure

Chemical - O2, N2, S, P, C, Ions and organic growth factors

47
Q

What is culture medium?

A

Nutrients prepared for microbial growth

48
Q

Selective media is…

A

Using set environment to suppress unwanted microbes and encourage desired ones

49
Q

Enriched culture is…

A

Encourages the growth of a desired microbe by increasing small numbers to detectable ones

50
Q

What is a pure culture?

A

A culture grown from one cell.

51
Q

How do you obtain a pure culture

A

Sterilise looped rod on a Bunsen burner then inoculate loop. Apply one streak to the agar plate. Re-sterilise loop and make a second streak vertically compared to the last one. Repeat one more time and swab the other side of the agar. Incubate and observe

52
Q

What are the two technique types to count microbial cells?

A

Direct - plate count (dilution plating), filtration, direct microscopic count

Indirect - Turbidity, metabolic activity, dry weight

53
Q

What is membrane filtration?

A

Solution gets passed through a cellulose filter (o.45micrometres) that collects and retains bacteria. Filter is added to Petri dish and bacteria is allowed to grow and colonies to be counted

54
Q

Microscopic count is…

A

Counting bacteria with a special grid and slide. Bacteria are stained to be visualised.

NO. Of cells counted/volume of area counted

55
Q

What is an indirect method of counting bacteria?

A

Turbidity/cell mass - measurement of cloudiness and optical density of liquid using a spectrophotometer

Metabolic activity - amount of metabolic product is proportional to population size

Dry mass

56
Q

What are endoscopes?

A

Resting/dormant form of bacterial cells. They are produced by 2 Gram+ genera - Bacillus and clostridium.

57
Q

Sporulation and Germination are…

A

Endospore formation and the returning of the spore to a vegetative state.

58
Q

§porulation is a process of differentiation, started when growth ceases due to lack of nutrients or environmental stress

A
59
Q

Endospore resistance includes

A

Heat, chemicals and radiation. Much more resistant than the vegetative bacteria

60
Q

What are the terms used for antimicrobial control measures

A

Sterilisation - all destroyed even Endospore
Disinfection - reduces the number of pathogenic microorganisms (not Endospore) until they no longer cause diseases
Sanitisation - reduces microbes to a safe, public level standard
Antimicrobial chemotherapy - drug treatment for specific infection to SELECTIVELY kill or inhibit growth of microbes within a host.

61
Q

Which type of heat is more effective at killing bacteria?

A

Moist heat (autoclave)

62
Q

What is Mutualism

A

Both species benefit from each other

63
Q

What is Commensalism

A

One species benefits, the other has neither benefit or loss

64
Q

What is Parasitism

A

One species benefits whilst the other is harmed

65
Q

What is the difference between yeasts and moulds?

A

Yeasts are mono cellular whilst moulds are pluricellular
Yeasts are on Asexual whilst spores can be asexual or sexual reproduction

66
Q

Viruses are Acellular, they are not cells

A
67
Q

What are viruses called due to them being unable to divide on their own?

A

Obligate intracellular parasites

68
Q

What is a mature virus called

A

Virion - nucleic acid (DNA OR RNA)
- Capsid
- Envelope (sometimes)
- Matrix proteins/enzymes

69
Q

Envelope glycoproteins protrude outside the virus. How are they synthesised and what is their function?

A

Synthesised by the ribosomes of the host

Their function is to bind onto the surface of the host’s cell

70
Q

What are capsids made out of?

A

Capsomers - helical/polyhedral/complex

71
Q

What is viral tropism?

A

The specificity of what cell a virus can infect

72
Q

What are bacteriophages

A

Viruses which only infect bacteria

73
Q

What are the steps of virus replication

A

1.
Must collide with target cell
Attachment must be specific to receptors on cell surface using protruding proteins
2.
Penetration of membrane by endocytosis
3.
Virion uncoating - disassembly of the caspid which releases the genetic material of the nucleus to the cell
4.
Viruses hijacks the cells replication machinery and begins to replicate their genome
5.
New genome and capsids are formed
6.
New Virion are released after the complete synthesis

74
Q

What must happen for a virus to cause disease?

A

Enough virus enters host
Virus can access cells and start replicating
Local antiviral system is overcome or absent

75
Q

Describe the acute viral infection

A

Short incubation periods
rapid oneset of disease
brief period of symptoms
Quick resolution

76
Q

Latent infection

A

No symptoms
Viruses not detectable by body
May reactivate due to change in immunity

77
Q

What is a persistent viral infection

A

It occurs gradually over time

78
Q

Herpesvirus reactivation can be due to

A

Sunlight, psychology stress, fever, menstruation, surgical resection

79
Q

How do viruses cause cancer?

A

Encode proteins to act as oncogenes themselves
Activate cellular proto-oncogenes to oncogenes
This inactivate tumou suppressor genes
Cell cycle is not stopped and checked at previous check points
Cell cycle is always on

101 Bio (4 decks)

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