Dr Mac's email: List of topics to be familiar with for mid-term

Question 1

What are inferential statistics?

Answer 1

Inferential statistics allows a researcher to generalize the results from a sample to a population through hypothesis testing.

Question 2

What are descriptive statistics?

Answer 2

Descriptive statistics are used to describe data or depict data to be organized summarized and described in a format that is more easily understood We can present the data with the use of graphs, charts, tables, an for numerical measures.

Question 3

Give an example of inferential statistics.

Answer 3

Suppose you are hired by the US dept of health to examine how Americans feel about healthcare reform. You could survey every American about their opinion of the reform but this would be lengthy. Instead you take a sample of Americans by following a strategy to ensure that this sample accurately represents all Americans. The collected sample asks the participants their opinions. These opinions/data are then used to draw conclusions. These conclusions can then be inferred into the rest of the population.

Question 4

Give an example of descriptive statistics.

Answer 4

Collecting data such as age, GPA, family income, and standardized test scores from applications. Through descriptive stats the administrators at the college are able to understand the characteristics of the student population admitted to the college in a given year.

Question 5

Know the difference between an independent and dependent variable.

Answer 5

Independent variable is the variable to be manipulated by the researcher. Independent variable affects the dependent variable.

Dependent variables are affected by and the end result of the independent variable.

example: Examining whether hep B antigen affects liver function test results. The presence or absence of the hep b antigen is the independent variable. The results of the liver function test is the dependent variable.

Question 6

Nominal measurement

Answer 6

Means to name or to categorize. A discrete variable

Question 7

Ordinal Measurement

Answer 7

Mutually exclusive categories. Ranking or ordering is imposed on categories. A discrete variable

Question 8

Interval measurement

Answer 8

Classified into categories with ranking and are mutually exclusive. Specific meanings are applied to distances between categories. There is no absolute value of zero. A continuous variable

Question 9

Ratio measurement

Answer 9

There is a meaningful zero, and an equal proportion is present. A continuous variable

Question 10

What level of measurement is this: Gender, ethnicity, zip code, religion, medical diagnosis, names of medicines, hair color

Answer 10

Nominal; One group cannot be deemed better than another group-no rankings

Question 11

What level of measurement is this: Likert scale, histological rating, pain scale, age groups, grades, performances

Answer 11

Ordinal; there is a ranking or ordering of the values

Question 12

What level of measurement is this: IQ, education achievement tests, temperature, SAT score, depression score, time of day, date (years)

Answer 12

Interval; no absolute value of zero

Question 13

What level of measurement is this: Income, age, height, weight, BP, years of work experience, time to complete a task

Answer 13

Ratio; there is a meaningful zero

Question 14

Why sample a population?

Answer 14

Because it is too costly to do a whole population; take a sample and try to infer what we find from sample to population

Question 15

Random Sampling

Answer 15

o Selecting subjects based on chance alone; the strongest approach to sampling; based on equal chance of selection
o Challenging if population includes unknown elements; requires that the entire population is known
o Ex: if a researcher wishes to draw a random sample of 10 from a population of 100, each subject has 10 chances in 100 of being selected

Question 16

Simple random sampling

Answer 16

o Taken so that all subjects in a population have an equal opportunity of being selected.
o Identify all subjects in the population and then randomly select
o Uses a random number table or generator

Question 17

Systematic Random Sampling

Answer 17

o Begins with assigning a number to each subject in the population and then selecting every kth person
o Order of subjects needs to be random
o Ex: Select every 20th subject

Question 18

Stratified Random Sampling

Answer 18

o To ensure that certain groups are represented equally in the sample
o Stratified by gender/sex, race/ethnicity, income
o Divide the population into groups (strata) based on elements and then randomly select subjects from each group
o More precise than simple random sampling; homogenous

Question 19

When is a stratified random sample proportionate? When is it not proportionate?

Answer 19

o Proportionate if the subject size of each stratum in the sample is in proportion to that in the population
o Nonproportionate if the subject size of each stratum is not proportionate to that of the population

Question 20

Cluster Sampling

Answer 20

o Similar to stratified, used when a population is large or when a study covers a large geographic area
o Heterogenous; different subjects
o Dividing a population into different groups (clusters)
o Less precise than simple random sampling or stratified
o More cost effective and feasible

Question 21

What are the four types of random sampling?

Answer 21

Simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling

Question 22

Nonrandom sampling

Answer 22

o Do not rely on chance, no equal chance of selection
o Prioritize feasibility or access to the population of interest
o Ex: Testing a drug for pancreatic cancer so you find patients with the disease

Question 23

Convenience Sampling

Answer 23

o Based on accessibility of subjects
o Less representative of the population
o Used a lot in clinical research
o Ex: every student in a course at school

Question 24

Volunteer Sampling

Answer 24

o Only those who offer themselves as participants in the study are included as the sample
o Inexpensive way to ensure a sufficient number of subjects for a sample
o Obtains skewed opinions on the characteristics of interests as this group will have a narrower range of opinions than a randomly selected group
o Most health related research, even when samples are randomly drawn

Question 25

Quota Sampling

Answer 25

o Dividing the population into mutually exclusive groups and selecting subjects from each group
o Similar to stratified but not randomly selected
o May use convenience sampling within each quota
o Limits generalizability, may be proportionate

Question 26

Snowball Sampling

Answer 26

o Uses word of mouth, nomination, or referral to accrue subjects
o Researcher must make at least one contact with a subject and then that subject nominates others
o Useful for finding hidden subjects
o Can be biased or misleading results
o Ex: find teens doing drugs

Question 27

What are the four types of nonrandom sampling?

Answer 27

Snowball, quota, volunteer, and convenience

Question 28

Numeric values may be?

Answer 28

Discrete or continuous

Question 29

Discrete or Categorical variable

Answer 29

values that are countable but do not include the fractions between countable categories

Question 30

Continuous variable

Answer 30

Have every possible value on a continuum

Question 31

Confounding variable

Answer 31

any uncontrolled variable that may influence the outcome of a study

Question 32

Open coding

Answer 32

the most basic coding, the first step taken to group data into logical categories

Question 33

Axial coding

Answer 33

Advanced form of coding, takes the analysis process further by generating categories, themes, and patterns; the second step in coding after open

Question 34

Focused coding

Answer 34

identify patterns and multiple layers of meaning, and to delineate variations and interconnections among sub-themes within the general topic; in grounded theory, a more finalized set of coding

Question 35

Why do coding?

Answer 35

To stay close to the data, to give quantifiable answers to qualitative data
For content analysis, to quantify or provide frequency, to categorize the text

Question 36

What is variability?

Answer 36

The degree to which scores in a distribution are spread out or dispersed; in quantitative research
Can either be homogeneity or heterogeneity
Data for a variable can be completely described in terms of the shape of the distribution, central tendency, and variability

Question 37

Difference between homogeneity and heterogeneity in variability

Answer 37

Homo (little variability) and Hetero (great variability)

Question 38

what are the two indexes of variability?

Answer 38

1. Range: highest value minus lowest value

2. Standard deviation: average deviation from mean of scores in a distribution

Question 39

What is central tendency?

Answer 39

The index of typicalness of a set of scores that comes from the center of the distribution; the mode, median, and mean of a data set

Question 40

Difference between mode, median, and mean

Answer 40

1. Mode: most frequently occurring; useful as gross descriptor, esp of nominal measures
2. Median: point in a distribution where data points above and below each comprise 50%; useful mainly as descriptor of typical value when distribution is skewed
3. Mean: equals the sum of all scores divided by the total number of scores; most stable and widely used indicator of central tendency, when distribution is symmetric

Question 41

Descriptive codes

Answer 41

involved fairly directly observed behaviors or events

Question 42

Interpretive codes

Answer 42

require field researchers to use understanding of the social context in order to categorize a section of field notes

Question 43

pattern codes

Answer 43

identify an emergent theme, configuration, or explanation

Question 44

what is grounded theory?

Answer 44

symbolic interactionism; people create their own sense of self through interaction with others
develop theory that is “grounded” in the data
social and psychological process

Question 45

Qualitative Research (non-numeric)

Answer 45

• Directed at the discovery of meaning rather than cause and effect
• Involves the use of language, concepts, and words rather than numbers
• focuses on the creation of social experience and emergent meanings; between participant and researcher; and the environmental issues that may shape inquiry

Question 46

Quantitative Research (numeric)

Answer 46

• measurement and analysis of relationships between and among variables at a point in time
• uses NUMBERS to represent reality
• directed towards cause and effect
• methods used are based on the scientific method of inquiry

Question 47

what is a survey research study?

Answer 47

designed to obtain info regarding the prevalence, distribution, and interrelationships of variables within a population
useful for collecting demographic information
usually quantitative and descriptive

Question 48

What are the 5 different types of qualitative research?

Answer 48

phenomenology, ethnography, case studies, and historical research and grounded theory

Question 49

What is phenomenology?

Answer 49

designed to provide understanding of the participants’ lived experience; for studying intangible experiences like grief, hope, and risk taking

Question 50

What is ethnography?

Answer 50

Used to study phenomena from a cultural perspective

Question 51

what are the three different types of quantitative research?

Answer 51

experimental, quasi-experimental, and non experimental/descriptive

Question 52

What is non experimental research?

Answer 52

no intervention, no control, no randomization

correlation studies, cohort design, and case control

Question 53

Pros and cons of non experimental research

Answer 53

Pros: practical, efficient way to collect large amounts of data
Cons: cannot make causal inferences, not observing entire phenomenon

Question 54

What is quasi-experimental design?

Answer 54

intervention and control but subjects are not randomized

Can be posttest only, pretest-posttest, one group pretest, or time series design

Question 55

Pros and Cons of quasi-experimental design

Answer 55

Pros: practical, more acceptable to subjects, may be unethical to randomize
Cons: difficult to make causal inferences

Question 56

What is experimental research?

Answer 56

experimental design, control group

pretest only, Solomon four group (pretest 2), crossover design (flip flop)

Question 57

Pros and Cons of experimental research?

Answer 57

Pros: randomized, optimal design for test cause and effect
Cons: control v practical in life; need for randomization may present feasibility and ethical concerns

Question 58

What is an intervention/therapy research question?

Answer 58

what therapy or intervention will result in better health outcomes or prevent adverse health outcomes
Level 2 research

Question 59

What is a diagnosis/assessment research question?

Answer 59

what test/assessment/procedure will yield accurate diagnoses or assessment of critical patient conditions and outcomes
Level 2

Question 60

What is a prognosis research question?

Answer 60

does exposure to a disease or health problem increase there risk of subsequent adverse consequences?
Level 2

Question 61

What is an etiology research question?

Answer 61

what factors cause or contribute to the risk of a health problem or disease
Level 2

Question 62

What is a meaning research question?

Answer 62

what is the meaning of life experiences and what is the process by which they unfold
Level 3

Question 63

What type of research question is this?:
In (population), what is the effect of (intervention) on (outcome)?
In (population), what is the effect of (intervention), in comparison to (comparative/alternative), on (outcome)?

Answer 63

Intervention question

Question 64

What type of research question is this?:
For (population), does (identifying tool/procedure) yield accurate and appropriate diagnostic/assessment information about (outcome)?
For (population), does (identifying tool/procedure) yield more accurate or more appropriate diagnostic/assessment information than (comparative tool/procedure) about (outcome)?

Answer 64

Diagnosis/Assessment

Question 65

What type of research question is this?:
For (population), does (exposure to disease or condition) increase the risk of (outcome)?
For (population), does (exposure to disease or condition), relative to (comparative disease or condition) increase the risk of (outcome)?

Answer 65

Prognosis

Question 66

What type of research question is this?:
In (population), does (influence, exposure or characteristic) increase the risk of (outcome)?
Does (influence, exposure or characteristic) increase the risk of (outcome) compared to (comparative influence) in (population)?

Answer 66

Etiology/harm

Question 67

What is a description/prevalence/incidence research question?

Answer 67

explicit comparisons are not typical, except to compare different populations

Question 68

What type of research question is this?:

In (population), how prevalent is (outcome)?

Answer 68

Descriptive/incidence/prevalence

Question 69

what type of research questions are used with non experimental research questions?

Answer 69

etiology, prognosis, and diagnosis questions

Question 70

experimental research uses what type of research questions?

Answer 70

therapy

Question 71

What does FINER stand for?

Answer 71

the criteria for a good research question
F: FEASIBLE-adequate number of subjects, affordable, manageable in scope, adequate technique
I: INTERESTING- getting the answer intrigues investigator, peers, and community
N: NOVEL- confirms, refutes, or extends previous findings
E: ETHICAL- cooperative to a study that institutional review board will approve
R: RELEVANT-to scientific knowledge, to clinical and health policy, to future research

Question 72

What is nursing theory?

Answer 72

a statement that describes and/or explains phenomena; a set of interrelated concepts and propositions that explain and predict phenomenon

Question 73

What are the three developmental stages of theories?

Answer 73

1. Descriptive: most basic level, simply name, describe, and classify phenomena of interest (Ex: stages of grieving)
2. Explanatory: statements of relationships between phenomena, use correlational statistics; relational
3. Predictive: highest level, predict outcomes given one or more specific inputs; more complex than a single input

Question 74

What is a concept tree?

Answer 74

a guide to thinking about and articulating the theoretical works, from broadest worldviews to the narrowest operational definitions; illustrates the progressions from the concrete to the abstract

Question 75

What is a conceptual framework?

Answer 75

broadest of theories. very broad ideas about person, health, and environment; guide exploration of world and how we interpret it
address foundational ideas

Question 76

What is the pathway through a conceptual framework?

Answer 76

grand theory&raquo_space; midrange theory&raquo_space; propositions&raquo_space; constructs&raquo_space; concepts&raquo_space; dimensions&raquo_space; operational indicators

Question 77

What is a grand theory

Answer 77

overarching theories; derived from other theories and disciplines or developed within nursing
create a structure to organize knowledge and to define practice
(not necessary to have conceptual framework and grand theory)

Question 78

what is a midrange theory?

Answer 78

more focused than a grand theory. more concrete and specific
sets of related ideas focused on a limited area of knowledge
aka nursing theory lives here
connect the grand theories to the constructs and concepts

Question 79

Examples of midrange theory?

Answer 79

symptoms, experiences, and outcomes of symptom management

Erikson’s Growth and development, Lewin’s change, and Lazarus coping

Question 80

What are propositions?

Answer 80

Statements about a concept or several concepts that may describe the characteristics of a phenomenon or predict a relationship between concepts
General or specific

Question 81

What is more concrete: concept or construct

Answer 81

Constructs are simply more abstract, more complex, and less observable that concepts

Question 82

Concepts

Answer 82

Building blocks of nursing
theoretical definitions of phenomena
not necessary to include both constructs and concepts on a concept tree

Question 83

what is the criteria for mature concepts?

Answer 83

clearly defined, distinct, coherent, systematically related to other concepts, applicable to real life practice

Question 84

Examples of concepts

Answer 84

gaze, empathy, dignity, perfusion, balance dyspnea, REM sleep

Question 85

What are dimensions?

Answer 85

an attribute to a concept or construct

Ex: the concept of ADLs includes the dimensions of bathing, dressing, toileting, etc.

Question 86

What are operational indicators?

Answer 86

Empirical indicators; means by which the theoretical unit is measured; operation employed by researcher to secure measurements of a value

Question 87

What are three major issues in nursing theory?

Answer 87

1. Confirmation bias: researcher sees what they want see
2. Are we basing knowledge on medical knowledge or nursing knowledge? is there a clear consensus?
3. Need for nursing profession to develop own midrange theories

Question 88

List the seven steps of evidence-based practice listed in the study.

Answer 88

Step 0: Cultivate inquiry in an EBP culture and environment
Step 1: Ask the PICO(T) question
Step 2: Search for the best evidence
Step 3: Critically appraise the evidence
Step 4: Integrate evidence with clinical expertise and patient preferences to make the best clinical decision
Step 5: Evaluate the outcome(s) of the EBP practice change
Step 6: Disseminate the outcome(s)

Question 89

Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

Answer 89

Credibility:
equivalent to internal validity (is the measure true?)
Prolonged engagement and persistent observation producing thick, rich description- time
Member checking- share preliminary findings with subjects and ask for feedback
Peer debriefing-share findings with experts in the field of study and type of
research method
Negative case analysis-explore data that is unexpected or not in line with other
participants, look for meaning
Triangulation- method (add quant), source(ask family), analyst (co-investigator)

Transferability:
equivalent to external validity(will meaning transcend situations?)
Application to other situations- not a goal in qualitative research, phenomena is explored in the environment it is encountered
Connect results to findings of other studies- look for similar connections ie depression and fatigue is there a relationship?

Dependability:
equivalent to reliability (if same approach attempted will same findings occur?) Six types of material are used. Raw data, which consists of all field notes, videos or tape recordings, and any document or other item collected. Data analysis products which is any summaries or ideas that occur to the researcher during the study. Data synthesis which is coding schemes creat4ed, coded data, themes found, and interpretations made. Process notes which is descriptions of how data was obtained and how analysis was done. Reflections of investigators which is the personal notes kept by the researcher or investigator. Survey or questioner which is any forms used to collect information on participants age, gender, occupation, and so forth.

Confirmability: equivalent to the effort to maintain objectivity (observable) in qualitative research. Record schedules, daily activities, describe data collection, include personal reflections but keep them separate.

Variable types
A variable is a characteristic or phenomenon that can vary from one subject to another or from one time to another. Independent variable is the treatment or manipulation that occurs. In nonexperimental research it is the theoretical causative factor that affects the dependent or outcome variable. In other words it is the explanatory variable, also called the predictor variable. The dependent variable in experimental research Is the measured outcome of the treatment. In nonexperimental research it is the theoretical result of the effects of the independent variable.

Question 90

How to investigate a research topic

Answer 90

Search the literate to discover what is known and not know about your topic. Use as many search terms. Continue to search until you find no new references. Search books and articles. Include policy statements, go back as far as 15-20 years. Carefully review any information you find, investigate the credibility. DO NOT select articles available in full text online, do not include articles that are not data based. Do not limit the search to the past five years. Do not limit your search to one or two databases, or to electronic databases. Do not ignore publications from other countries, or book & reports. Do not hesitate to ask for help. Make sure your sources are credible.