Domain IV: Foodservice Systems Flashcards
Menu determines:
equipment, food, space, personnel needed
Menu types determined by:
the facility’s food and dining concept
Menu type: no choice
nonselective, either cycle or single use
1. serves clientele who are unable or have no desire to choose
2. permits more accurate forecasting, greater control
Menu type: limited choice
provide choices for some items
Menu type: choice-selective
better please clientele
Menu type: choice: static, fixed, set
same menu items every day, when clients change daily, restaurant
Menu type: choice: single use
one day use only, catered events
often used when clientele do not vary day-to-day
Menu type: choice: cycle-standing
repetition of menus in designated sequence
1. hospitals with 2-4 day average patient stay: 1 or 2 week cycles
2. long term care facility: 3 or 4 week cycle
3. high school lunch programs: two-week cycle with four choices
4. simplifies purchasing, standardizes preparation procedures, gives a more constant and evenly distributed workload
Menu type: choice: spoken
presented orally
Menu type: choice: room service
patients call when hungry, order from astatic menu; delivered 30-45 min
(increased intake, decreased food waste)
Menu type: choice: two tier
upscale menu items prepared for those willing to pay extra for them
Commercial operations
sale of food is primary activity
1. table d’hote-complete meal at set price
2. a la carte- separate items at separate prices
3. du jour- menu of the day; uses leftovers and food bargains
Non-commercial operations
on-site food service, provides food as a secondary activity: hospital, school, military
Cultural, religious, ethnic modifications for nutritional needs
- Southeast Asians: pork, few dairy products (non-dairy calcium source)
- Kosher: no meat and dairy at same meal; no pork, shellfish
- Chinese: Yin foods (raw, cold: fish, vegetables, fruits) Yang foods (bright, hot: hot chicken soup, eggs, warm spices). Rice is neutral
- Seventh Day Adventist: ovo-lacto-vegetarian; no caffeine, alcohol, pork
- Central America/Hispanic/Latin: fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, fish
- Muslim: halal dietary laws, prohibited foods are called haram (no pork, alcohol, gelatin, congealed salads), overeating is discouraged, fasting dawn to sunset during Ramadan
- Romana Catholics: meat is not consumed on Fridays during Lent
- Buddhism: no alcohol
School Lunch Menus
- NuMenus: Nutrient Standard Menu Planning, uses USDA approved nutrient analysis software
- Assisted NuMenus: nutrient analysis may be done by another school or consultant
- Enhanced Food-Based and Traditional Food-Based: computers not required
Operational and external influences: physical facility
space should provide adequate flow for traffic
1. consider distance between point of preparation and distribution
2. equipment selected after menu is written
3. if kitchen floor space is too expansive, efficiency declines
Operational and external influences: personnel
time and ability limitations
Operational and external influences: budget
food is variable expense; largest percent spent on meat, fish, poultry
Operational and external influences: government regulations
- guidelines for schools and long-term care facilities
- “truth-in-menu” legislation requires that menus accurately describe foods to be served (Maine lobster, fresh fish)
- Food Code: person in charge must be able to identify food allergens and associated symptoms
Operational and external influences: aesthetics, external factors
color, shape, consistency, flavor, climate, season
Operational and external influences: trends and popular items
specialty coffees, comfort foods (meatloaf), soups, salads, sandwiches, Asian vegetables, spices from India, meatless entrees
Operational and external influences: emergency/disaster menus
power failure, disruption in water supply
1. plan to require minimum staffing for preparation and service
2. multiple days of food supplies available
3. one gallon of water/person/day for minimum of three days
Master menu steps
- Plan dinner entree for entire cycle
- Plan luncheon entree or main dishes
- Starchy items appropriate with entrees
- Salads, vegetables, accompaniments and appetizers
- Desserts and breads for both lunch and dinner
- Breakfast and other items
Menu psychology
design and layout in such a way as to influence the sale of foods served
1. position items you want to sell more of in the first and last position within a category. more likely to be chosen
2. center of a three-fold menu is the prime menu sales area
Mennu engineering
the practice of developing menus with the goal to encourage customers to buy certain items. It focuses on both the popularity and the contribution to profit of the items. The model segments items into one of four categories, based on its popularity relative to other items (the menu mix), and its contribution to profit (contribution margin)
Four categories of menu items (profit and popularity)
High profit, high popularity: STAR
Low profit, low popularity: DOG
High profit, low popularity: PUZZLE
Low profit, high popularity: PLOWHORSE
Menu mix
popularity
calculated by dividing the number sold of a particular item by the total number of all items sold
greater than or less than 70% of total sales
Contribution margin
profitability
calculated by subtracting a menu item’s food cost from its selling price
above or below average contribution margin for entire menu
Satisfaction surveys
hedonic scale: foods rated from extremely like to extremely dislike
facial scales used with children, or if client speaks another language
Frequence of acceptance
how often they would be willing to eat an item
Plate waste
reliable quantitative method, amount of food left on a plate
Average check
the average amount customers spent on a meal
1. divide sales by the number of customers served
2. helpful in detecting trends
3. if lower than normal, perhaps different menu items or more promotion will help
Popularity index
used to analyze and predict any items sales; chart day to day variations in demand; as well as each item’s popularity in relation to other items
Divide the # of servings of an item by the total number of servings of all items in that category that day
Benchmarking
compare satisfaction levels to those of other facilities which are considered “ best in class”
Procurement
first functional subsystem, function of acquiring material for production (purchase, receive, storage, inventory control)
Purchasing department
- profit center: assigned both expense and revenue responsibilities (cafeteria)
- cost center: manage expenses, but do not generate profit (patient)
Informal, open market
when a small amount is needed quickly
1. buyer requests quotes on specific items for specific amounts and qualities from one or more sources of supply; contact made by phone or with vendor
2. place order after considering price, quality, delivery
formal, competitive bid buying
provide written specifications and quantity needs to vendors who then submit a price
1. bids are opened together; place order with lowest bid (price)
future contracts
purchase goods at a specific price to be shipped later
prime vending
use single vendor for majority of purchases, saves time and money
centralized purchasing
- personnel in one office does all purchasing for all units in that organization
- cost-effective and time-saving
group or co-op purchasing
- involves union of separate units (hospitals), not related to a single management, for joint purchasing
- economic advantage of large volume discounts
JIT just-in-time purchasing
purchase products as needed for production and immediate consumption by customer, without having to store and record it in the inventory. Receiving clerks take items immediately to area in which they will be used
purchase requisition
first document used in the purchasing process, internal form used to request items from the purchasing manager
purchase order
completed by the buyer; written record of items ordered and quantities needed
1. standing order: eliminate the need to call in daily or weekly orders
2. FOB (free-on-board): products delivered with all transport charges paid
3. POB origin: buyer takes ownership at seller’s location
Written specifications
accurate word picture or definition of a product
1. precise statement of quality; brief, complete, simple
2. include name, form, quantity, quality, size, grade, style, sieve size
3. types
–technical: indicate quality by objective and impartial test results (graded food items, gauge of metals). Can-cutting: open cans for comparison among brands
–approved brand specifications: indicate quality by specifying a brand name
–performance specifications: indicate quality by functioning characteristics of the product (how many dishes washed/minute)
formularies
descriptions of approved products that an organization (or a department) would like all personnel (who need such a product) to use. Volume discounts can be obtained. Standardizes usage
vendor performance requirements
compare price, quality, service
1. evaluate after several orders have been filled
2. value added services (chopped lettuce vs heads of lettuce, coffee-making equipment with the purchase of coffee products)
buyer’s code of ethics
can serve as legal agent for the organization
1. consider first the interest of your company
2. buy without prejudice, obtain maximum value for each dollar spent
3. denounce bribery, kickbacks; respect your obligations
4. avoid collusion with vendors-decline gifts and favors that could compromise your ability to make objective purchasing decisions
food broker
does not own products; connects buyers with sellers
Foodservice management software
Computrition, CBORD, Dietary Manager, ChefMax
Procurement decisions: amount to order
based on number to be served, size portion, amount of waste
1. portion size x # servings; convert to pounds (edible portion, EP)
2. amount to purchase = EP/% yield (amount provided by 1# of the item)
determining how many servings can be obtained
consider % lost in preparation
1. subtract the amount that will be lost and convert to ounces
2. divide by portion size
EOQ economic order quantity
- a quantitative approach to ordering staple or regularly stocked items
- attempts to find the quantity that minimizes both purchasing and inventory costs, determines the order size that is most economical
- total annual cost of restocking an inventory product depends on the number of times it is ordered each year
- to decrease costs, place orders as seldom as possible by ordering larger quantities
- when the cost of placing an order aligns with the cost of holding the items, EOQ is obtained
Time series forecasting
short term forecasts; assumption that needs follow an identifiable pattern over time
1. moving average: uniformly weighs past observations (numbers are weighted equally)
2. exponential smoothing: uses software
–gives more recent values more weight
–does NOT uniformly weigh past observations
Causal models
assumption that a relationship exists between the item being forecast and other factors (selling price, number of customers)
1. medium and long term forecasts, expensive to develop
2. example-regression analysis forecasting; assumption that relationship between variables will continue over time
Subjective model
used when relevant data are scarce or when relationships between data do not tend to persist over time-must rely on opinions
1. Delphi technique-expert opinions; market research, panel consensus
First control in receiving process
purchase order
Receiving area
close to delivery docks with easy access to storage
Invoice
vendor’s delivery slip that accompanies the order
1. suppliers’ statement of items being shipped, unit price, total expected payment
2. compare invoice against purchase order first, then items against invoice
3. inspect items, list on receiving report, store promptly
Blind check receiving method
- give clerk blind invoice or purchase order listing incoming merchandise but omitting quantities, weights
- receiving clerk inserts these numbers into the order on the basis of a check of the delivery
- forces clerk to make serious check of delivery
- takes longer and costs more in labor
Daily receiving report
lists items received, date, number units, unit price, supplier, PO number
Substitution invoice
use when order arrives without an invoice
Request for credit
lists discrepancies such as shortages
Other receiving procedures
- person who purchased the items should not be the one to receive them
- schedule hours for receiving. avoid busiest production times, and avoid too many deliveries arriving at the same time
- if there is any indication that frozen fish has been allowed to thaw, reject it
Storage amount required
depends on frequency of deliveries, market form of food purchased (raw, prepared, partially prepared), extent of menu
How to store items
at point of first use, heavier products lower, lighter products higher
Dry storage
dry, cool, dark, well-ventilated, clean
1. separate room for cleaning supplies
2. temperature = 50-70 degrees F
3. ventilation-circulation of air removes moisture and odors
4. cartons and bags on shelves at least 6” above floor, and away from walls
5. humidity-measured by hygrometer; 50-60%
–fresh fruits and vegetables require the highest humidity 85-90%
Refrigerated storage
- <41 F-all potentially hazardous foods
–fresh fruits and vegetables 40-45; meat, dairy, eggs 32-40 - frozen foods 0-10 F
- storage times for refrigerated foods
–fresh eggs in shell 3-5 weeks; raw yolks, whites 2-4 days
–fresh poultry, ground meat, fresh fish, shellfish 1-2 days
–steaks, chops, roasts 3-5 days
Security of storage
Theft decreases if employees know management is watching
1. purchaser and receiver should be different people
2. have employees sign in and out when taking items from storeroom
3. schedule receiving hours. move items immediately to storage
4. Theft is premeditated burglary without force, robbery is burglary with force, pilferage is inventory shrinkage caused by employees stealing food
Perpetual inventory management
running record of balance on hand
1. updated each time an item is placed in or removed from storage
2. used in large operations that keep large quantities of product in stock
3. generally restricted to dry and frozen storage; bread, produce, milk are not on inventory and are considered direct issues
Physical inventory management
actual count of all goods on hand at end of accounting period
1. counted as asset on balance sheet
Par stock method
bring stock up to par level each time an order is placed regardless of the amount on hand: if par is 10, and you have 8, order 2
fixed order quantity inventory system
determines the order point (when you must reorder the item)
(average daily use)(lead time) + safety stock
1. lead time is the number of days from placing order until delivery
2. safety stock: small back-up supply to ensure against sudden increases in use
FIFO
first in, first out (stock rotation)
process of rearranging merchandise so that the older containers are in front and are issued first. Takes extra work but pays off by eliminating the problem of stale merchandise
Mini-max method
stock is allowed to deplete to safety level before new order is placed. establish minimum and maximum amounts to have on hand
1. order goods when minimum is reached and only in the amount needed to reach the maximum level
2. amount of item ordered will be the same each time it is ordered
ABC inventory classification system
- small amounts of product account for major portion of inventory value
- the relative importance of each inventory item is measured by how much the total value of purchases is for that item each year. This is the activity level
- <20% of the total # of items in stock constitute 75-80% of the total annual value of purchases = A items (vital, high value). 50-60% of inventory items compromise only 5-10% of the value = C items (trivial, low value)
- items between the A and C ranges are in the B class (moderate, medium value)
- tightest controls needed for A items (most expensive, often proteins)
Methods to determine the value of the inventory
- actual purchase price: based on actual purchase price of the product; count products; add value of all products on hand
- weighted average purchase price-time consuming
–based on average price paid for products over time
–multiply number of units of each product in opening inventory and those purchased during the month by the purchase price
–add these prices and divide by the total number of units - FIFO- based on last price paid multiplied by number of units on inventory
–uses most recent prices so tends to price inventory high - LIFO-last in, first out: uses oldest price paid for an item in inventory
–usually underestimates value of current inventory
–current purchases are largely made to meet current production demands - Latest purchase price-last price paid for the product, simple and fast
Issuing procedures
- removed on written order only (storeroom requisition or issue sheet)
- locked, well-organized, one person in control
- central ingredient room-quality control measure; assure storage, inventory, production control; saves food costs
Inventory technology
use of bar code to identify products. includes a five digit manufacturer ID number and a five digit product number
number system: single digit identifies “type” of product
check digit: an additional digit used to verify that a bar code has been scanned correctly
dispersion systems classified according to state of matter in each phase of the dispersion
- gas in liquid: whipped egg white (foam)
- gas in solid: sponge cake (suspension)
- liquid in liquid: mayonnaise (emulsion)
- solid in liquid: gravy (sol)
- liquid in solid: custard (gel)
dispersion systems classified on basis of size of dispersed particles
- small particles (sugar, salt): true solution
- large particles (protein, cooked starch): colloidal dispersion
- clumps of molecules (fat, uncooked starch): suspension which separates upon standing
To change degree of dispersion
apply heat or beat
Interface
line that forms between two immiscible liquids (oil and water)
Function of acid in vegetables
most vegetables are slightly acid with a relatively high pH
1. necessary to process them at temperature higher than 212 F to destroy botulism
2. pressure cooker can be used to can low acid vegetables because it reaches a temperature higher than 212
3. beets are sometimes pickled with vinegar (acetic acid) which lowers pH and can be canned in boiling water bath
4. acid causes loss of color when green vegetables are overcooked or canned
–heat disrupts cells and releases organic acids
–H ions from acid come into contact with magnesium in chlorophyll
–Mg is removed; molecule becomes pheophytin; brown or olive green
–to prevent: cook short time; leave lid off for first few minutes to allow escape of volatile acids
5. if baking soda (alkaline) is added, intense green color due to chlorophyllin
–mushy, water-soluble vitamins lost
Function of acid in angel food cake
cream of tartar-acidic pH
1. maintains white color by preventing the Maillard browning reaction
2. contributes to large volume by stabilizing egg white foam
3. contributes to tender crumb
4. without cream of tartar: tough, yellow, small cake
Enzymes
- act as catalysts to facilitate chemical reactions
- may remain active after cells die-must be controlled
- all are proteins-activity affected by temperature and pH
- role in ripening of fruit-converts starch to sugar, softens
–enzymatic oxidation causes browning of cut surfaces
–acid will lower pH and inhibit enzyme activity - blanch vegetables before freezing to destroy enzymes (boiling water quickly, then cold water)
Non-enzymatic browning-Maillard reaction
- initial step is combination of a reducing sugar (all simple sugars except sucrose) and an amino acid
- Maillard reaction mostly occurs in an alkaline environment. Baking soda and solid sugar will result in deep brown color. (Baking powder has acid)
- browning of bread
- more rapid browning-increase pH (6 or higher), increase temp
Conduction
heat moves from one particle to another by contact
1. good conductors: copper, black cast iron, aluminum
2. poor conductors: glass, stainless steel
3. ex: meat kept warm on dish sitting on heated plate
Convection
heated air moved with fan
1. transfer of heat by the circulation of hot air or liquid resulting from the change in density when heated. As less dense, hot substance rises, it pushes aside more dense, cooler material. The cooler portion sinks to the bottom, where it comes into contact with the metal of the pan or the heating element
Induction
use of electrical magnetic vibrations to excite the molecules of metal cooking surface
1. burner has NO open flame, burner surface does NOT get hot
2. pan itself is the original generator of the cooking heat, transferred to food by conduction
3. faster heat, no wasted heat, iron-based
Radiation
infrared waves coming from glowing heat (gas flame, charcoal, electrical element, toasting, broiling)
1. microwave-causes kinetic action (friction) that cooks food
–affects only water molecules, penetrates two inches into food
–standing time is subsequent distribution of heat by conduction when the magnetron is turned off
–in foodservice, mainly used to heat prepared foods; on demand feeding
–disadvantage-uneven heat, lack of browning in foods cooked short time; simmer or stew to tenderize is not possible; limited to small amounts
Engineered foods
- composed of a variety of natural and/or synthetic ingredients texturized and modified to stimulate the appearance and taste of a particular product
- advantages-consistent in year-round availability, taste, appearance, nutrient content; long shelf life
- meat analogs-isolated soy protein, vegetable protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins, minerals, flavor, color (less fat than meat, about 50% protein, no saturated fat)
- seafood analogs-soy blended with fish, retains flavor, does not change greatly when heated thus reducing weight loss and shrinkage; economical
- vegetable blends-incaparina (maize, sorghum, cottonseed flour), CSM (corn, soy, non-fat dry milk, vitamins, minerals)
Molds
warm (77-86 F), damp, dark conditions, grow best on acid, neutral, sweet foods. Used in curing cheese, making soy sauce
Usually does not produce harmful substances; boil to destroy
Yeasts
water, energy, acid medium in oxygen, 77-86 F
-bread-making; produces bubbles of gas; destroyed by boiling
Bacteria
need abundant moisture, neutral foods, 68-113 F
-some >113 F - thermophilic; aerobic or anaerobic
-destroyed by temperatures of pasteurization (145 F 30 min)
-DANGER ZONE 40-140 F
FATTOM
ideal conditions for microorganism growth: food, acidity, temperature, time, oxygen, moisture
Methods of food preservation
- chilling
- freezing
- drying
- canning
- irradiation
- pascalization, HPP, high pressure processing
- chemical preservatives
- sugar, salt
Freezing
freezing foods at <0 is least damaging to flavor and texture
1. preserves quality, nutritive value, chemical and physical properties
2. growth of microorganisms prevented by cold temps and lack of water
3. adding salt to foods being frozen causes loss of flavor and increases rancidity of any item containing fat
4. action of enzymes is slow, but noticeable over time
5. commercially, quick frozen: small crystals with smooth feeling
6. dehydrofreezing-dried to 50% of weight and volume, then frozen
7. thaw potentially hazardous foods in refrigerator; or submerge under running cold water at 70 degrees or lower
8. if thawed in microwave, cook immediately
9. cryogenic freezing: very low temperature (-238 F) using liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide
Drying
- low water content prevents growth of microorganisms
- need appropriate water level in dehydrated foods to ensure food safety and shelf life. Microorganisms grow well at an AW of 0.91-0.99. The AW that limits growth is 0.70-0.90. The lower limit for all microorganisms is 0.60 AW
- dehydration: fruits 80% water removed; vegetables 95% water removed
- enzymes inactivated by blanching
- sublimation: frozen first, then water is evaporated without melting crystals
Canning
USDA’s FSIS inspects canned product manufacturing
1. foods last up to one year
2. done under high pressure for short time to preserve quality
3. bacteria grow best at pH near neutrality. Most foods have a pH of 7 or less.
–high acid foods support less bacterial growth
–botulism more rapidly destroyed by heat in acid
–pH </=4.5 can use boiling water; higher use pressure cooker
4. calcium compounds are additives used as humectants; retain moisture, increase firmness, tenderness
5. aseptic canning: food sterilized outside of can, then aseptically placed in sterile cans which are sealed in an aseptic environment
6. when pickling foods, the acidity level of the vinegar used must be at least 5%
7. chemical spoilage may occur in canned foods. Interaction between contents and an imperfect container
Irradiation
cold sterilization (temperature of food does not rise much even though large amounts of energy are used). marked with radura symbol
1. to prevent off-flavors in meat irradiate frozen
2. approved by FDA for spices, beef, lamb, pork, poultry, wheat, potatoes
3. kills most harmful bacteria in foods other than milk
Pascalization, HPP, high pressure processing
extends shelf life (guacamole)
Chemical preservatives
BHA, BHT-antioxidants for fatty products (preserve butter, meat)
sugar, salt preservation
make water unavailable for bacterial growth
Production schedule
- assures efficient use of employee time and minimum production problems
- assign preparation to employees by hour of the day
Standardized recipes
produces known quantity of food of desired quality
1. name, ingredients, procedures, pan size, baking time, temp, quantity and number of portions of specific size, standard of quality expected
2. must be tested and adapted for use
Quality control
- employee evaluations, taste panels, customer reaction
- problem: lack of objective measures
Quantity control
proper forecasting, control portion sizes
1. inform server: size portion, dish, serving tool
–scoop size: divide 32 by the scoop number to determine number of ounces
Gantt progress chart
used to schedule and control work
1. concerned with TIME of production, not cost
2. rows on chart are tasks to be completed
3. horizontal bars indicate time period to complete each task
PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique, CPM-Critical Path Method
- Evaluation tool used for effective planning and control of the functions of management. Network for decision-making
- shows relationships among phases of a project
- shows what activities must await completion of other tasks and which activities can be performed concurrently
- can calculate total amount of time to complete
- need sequencing requirements, estimate of time for each activity
- critical path (longest pathway through) determines the minimum time for completion (helps determine labor costs). If any of these steps are delayed, the completion of the project will also be delayed
Conventional Production System
all preparation done on premises where meals are served, foods are prepared and served the same day (immediate service)
1. Advantages-more adaptable to individual preferences, menu flexibility, low distribution costs, less freezer storage needed
2. Disadvantages-uneven stressful workday caused by peak meal period demands, productivity lower as menus differ daily, high labor costs. Need all pre-preparation, cooking and serving equipment, skilled and unskilled
Centralized delivery
trays set up close to production under common supervision
–heated/refrigerated carts; heated pellets
–insulated trays-concern is HOW QUICKL can the tray be delivered
Decentralized delivery
used where distance from kitchen to patient is great
–bulk food delivered; trays set up in areas separate from production, close to customer
–duplication of equipment, employees, supervisors
Automated cart system
built-in corridors (monorail), decision to use is made in the planning stage (blueprint) or kitchen design
Commissary
satellite: centralizes procurement and production; food production (kitchen) and service areas (patients) are in separate facilities
1. menu items are in bulk or portioned, then frozen, chilled or hot-held; carriers are filled at the commissary and delivered to the service units
2. advantages-uniform quality of products for all units, economics-centralized, large-volume purchasing, no duplicate equipment or personnel
3. equipment and personnel operate at a high efficiency rate during the day with no idle periods; need highly skilled personnel
4. large sophisticated equipment, delivery trucks
5. disadvantages-delivery and safety issues; has 9 critical control points
Ready-prepared (cook-chill, cook-freeze)
not produced for immediate service but for inventory and subsequent withdrawal
1. foods are prepared on site, then frozen, chilled, for later use; requires blast chiller or freezer, adequate storage
2. distinct feature: separation between time of preparation and time of service
3. food may be held 1-5 days (blast chilling); up to 45 days (tumbled chilled), up to 3-4 months (cook freeze)
4. bulk foods should be brought down to 37 F in 90 min or less
5. sous vide-process that seals raw, fresh food items in plastic pouches to allow chilled storage and then cooking in boiling water, prior to service
6. rethermalization
–microwaves
–convection oven: food heated in bulk; reaches temperature more rapidly
–integral heat system (converts electric energy to heat through carbon resistors fused to bottom of dishes)
–immersion technique: heat pouches of food in boiling water or steamers
7. advantages-offsets critical shortage of high-skilled employees; production schedule more liberal, decreased job stress related to production deadlines, labor costs lower, menu items on call
8. disadvantages-cost of large cold storage, freezers, and space needed; need all pre-preparation, cooking and serving equipment
Assembly-serve
total convenience, minimal cooking concept
1. purchase completely prepared individual portions; finishby thawing, heating on premises. No on-site food production. Kitchen-less kitchen. Reheat, assemble
2. may use sous vide (precooked and vacuum-packaged)
3. advantages-only has 4 critical control points
–curtails labor time by separating manufacture from distribution; no skilled cooks or pre-preparation employees are needed
–equipment and space requirements are minimal; need reheating and serving equipment
4. disadvantage-limited menu items, quality, acceptability
Display cooking
restaurant design where food is displayed and prepared in full view of the diner
Cafeteria
- traditional-serve 3-4/minute
- scramble, hollow square, free-flow: separate counters for hot foods, salads
–serves a greater number of people
–used with “repeat” customers (employee or school cafeteria)
–if the scramble system is too slow, add food stations - food bank, electronic-precooked, frozen meal, color-coded for microwave
- to determine seat turnover: divide customers per meal by number of seats; if you have 150 customers and 100 seats, seats turnover 1.5 times during the meal period
vending machines
include healthy options
buffet, smorgasbord
watch contamination, use sneeze guards, eye appeal is important
waiter service
- counter: ease, speed; U shaped-uses space to a maximum
- table service
–American: waiter takes order and food is portioned onto plates in kitchen
–French: portions brought to table on platter; waiter completes preparation at table (carving, making sauce, flaming) (most expensive)
–Russian: prepared and portioned in kitchen; brought to table on serving platters, waiter serves individual portions to each guest
–family style: guests serve themselves from platters or bowls
–banquet: preset menu and service for a given number of people
FDA Food Code temperatures
- hold frozen: 0-10 F
- transport hot: 165-170 F
- do not hold between: 40-140 F
- reheat to 165 F for 15 seconds within 2 hours
- leftovers rapidly cooled (two stage process), total cool time 6 hours
–cool quickly from 135 to 70 F within 2 hours
–cool from 70 to 40 F within an additional 4 hours - hold cold food at 40 F or less
- ideal temperature range for growth of pathogen 70-125 F
USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) Meat and Poultry Division
- Wholesome Meat and Poultry Act-inspects all meat and poultry at time of slaughter and of processed products during production used in interstate, intrastate and foreign commerce
- Eggs Products Inspections Act-inspects processing plants; requires pasteurization of liquid eggs to be frozen or dried
US Department of Commerce National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
inspects and certifies fishing vessels, seafood processing plants, retail facilities for federal sanitation standards.
US Grade A: met sanitation and quality standards. Grades for shellfish are based on size (Jumbo shrimp: less than 25/lb)
Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service (PHS)
- concerned with infectious and contagious diseases transmitted through shellfish, milk, vending machines and restaurants
- contaminated shellfish transmit hepatitis
- Milk Ordinance Code-requires pasteurization of milk
DHHS Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
- PulseNet System: early warning system for outbreaks of foodborne disease, national network of labs that fingerprint bacteria
- FoodNet: trends of foodborne diseases over time, developed interventions
DHHS FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN)
- Food, Drug, Cosmetic Act (law)-covers all interstate (domestic and imported) food EXCEPT meat, fish, poultry, eggs
–inspect food processing factories, raw materials, labeling
–inspection of egg substitutes and imitation eggs
–monitors interstate shipping of SHELLFISH
–prohibits adulteration-lowering of quality by mixing or substituting substances
–prohibits misbranding-use of deceitful or unfair labeling
–additives
–FDA formulates mandatory standards (Federal regulations) for products shipped across state lines
–FDA controls any food labeled “imitation” or “substitute”
GRAS
generally recognized as safe due to long term use but has not been tested
Food Additive Amendment
producer of an additive must prove safety
Delaney Clause
anything causing cancer in animals or humans must be removed from market
Unintentional additives
incidental contamination (pesticide residue)
Standard of identity
defines what a product must be to be called by a certain name (mayonnaise)
Standard of quality
specifies minimum quality below which foods must not fall (fruit)
Standard of fill of containers
protects against deception through use of containers that appear to hold more than they do (canned goods)
Imitation
often nutritionally inferior; may cost less, taste the same (coffee whitener)
Substitute
nutritionally equal or superior in some ways and inferior in others (egg substitute)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
establish and monitor water quality standards; determines safety and tolerance levels for pesticides
Food intoxications
illness caused by toxin in food prior to consumption
Staphylococcus aureus
- found in humans-nose, hands, intestines, cuts, sores
- enters through handling or contact with contaminated surface
- grows best at 70-97 F; resists drying, freezing; not destroyed by cooking
- reheated foods, high in protein, meat, poultry, eggs, milk products, stuffing
- 1-7 hours after ingestion: nausea, vomiting, pain, diarrhea, NO FEVER
- to avoid-wash hands, chill food quickly, cool food in shallow pans
Clostridium botulinum
- anaerobic; rare and more deadly; unusually resistant to heat
- found in soil, water, plants, intestinal tract of humans and animals
- ingestion of organism causes no harm (does not multiply or produce toxin in GI tract); but if heat is not adequate in canning, spores produce toxins under anaerobic conditions; spores are destroyed in an acid
- 4-36 hours: weakness, double vision, fatigue, diarrhea, affects central nervous system (paralysis), inability to swallow, slurred speech, may be fatal in 3-10 days if not treated
- spoils low acid foods, improperly canned foods, vacuum-packed (sous vide) and tightly wrapped foods, smoked and salted fish, cooked root vegetables held at warm temperatures too long
- honey is a source-do not give to infants-inadequate immune system
Clostridium perfringens
- anaerobic; intestinal tract of man and animals, surfaces of meat and poultry
- 8-18 hours: nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea
- to prevent: cool foods in shallow pans, keep cold food below 40 F, keep hot food above 140 F, reheat leftovers to 165 F, wash hands
- improperly cooked and reheated, cooled slowly and reheated foods-cafeteria bug; meats, soups, gravies, stews, casserole
- foods held at room temperature in large quantities for several hours
Bacillus cereus
- forms spores; found in soil, dust, grains, rice, flour, cereal crops; aerobic
- emetic (nausea, vomiting); diarrheal (watery diarrhea, cramps)
- 30 min-6 hours (emetic), 6-15 hours (diarrheal); lasts up to 24 hours
- rice products (fried rice), starchy foods (potatoes, pasta, cheese products), food mixtures like casseroles, sauces, puddings, soups, pastries (emetic)
- meats, milk, vegetables, fish (diarrheal)
Food borne infections
activity of bacteria carried by food into GI tract
Salmonella
- 6-48 hours: fever, nausea, vomiting, chills, headache; lasts 2-3 days
- intestinal tract of humans and animals, water, soil; spread by food handlers
- low acid foods at body or room temperature, destroyed by temps of pasteurization
- raw and undercooked meat and poultry, eggs, raw dairy, seafood, melons
Streptococcus
- intestinal contents of humans and animals; caused by poor hygiene, ill handlers; grows at 50-113 F; destroyed by cooking
- milk, eggs, potato salad, food held at room temperature for hours
- onset 2-60 days; fever, diarrhea
Listeria monocytogenes
- symptoms in 2-30 days
- human, animal intestinal tract, unwashed vegetables, fruits, soil, water
- grows between 34-113 F; on neutral or slightly alkaline; resists freezing, drying, heat
- hot dogs, luncheon (deli) meats, cold cuts, coleslaw, raw milk, soft cheese
- may harm fetus; can cause flu-like symptoms, encephalitis, meningitis
Campylobacter jejuni
- one of the more common causes of gastroenteritis
- intestinal tract of cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry
- abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, 3-5 days; lasts 2-10 days
- raw or undercooked meat or poultry, raw milk, raw vegetables
- prevent cross contamination between raw and cooked foods
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus
- from raw or undercooked seafood (shellfish, oysters)
- fever, vomiting, cramps, diarrhea, 16 hours after ingestion, lasts 48 hours
- yields a norovirus
Shigella
- human intestinal tract, water polluted by feces; bare hands and flies
- cold mixed salads (chicken, tuna, potato), raw vegetables, watermelon
- 12-50 after ingestion: bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, 4-7 days
Escherichia coli
- human, animal intestinal tract; bloody diarrhea, severe cramping
- slow onset, 3-8 days after ingestion, lasts 5-10 days
- rare or raw ground beef, uncooked fruits and vegetables, raw milk, unpasteurized apple juice
- can survive freezing, high acidity; can grow at refrigerator temperatures
Norovirus
- illness caused by poor personal hygiene among infected food handlers
- does not reproduce in humans, but remains active until after food is eaten
- found in human feces, transmitted through contaminated water, human contact, vegetables fertilized by manure, manufactured ice cubes, ready to eat food; nausea, diarrhea, vomiting in 24-48 hours, lasts 1-2 days
Most critical elements of food safety
hand-washing and control of proper time and temperatures (follow Food Code)
Foodborne illness can be linked directly to the lack of attention to personal hygiene. Employees should:
- wear clean, washable clothing with effective hair restraints
- jewelry is discouraged, as bacteria can lodge in settings and contaminate food
- hands should be washed using soap and friction for at least 20 seconds
- disposable gloves are encouraged for direct food contact. change gloves frequently to avoid cross-contamination
- employees with symptoms of vomiting, diarrhea, fever, respiratory infection or sore throat should not work as a food handler
Standard Operating Procedures
written step-by-step instructions for routine tasks; documentation is a prerequisite for the quality control analysis model of HACCP
HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
- preventative approach to quality control, identifying potential dangers for corrective action, identifies food hazards and high hazard jobs
- critical control points (CCP): points in food service where a loss of control would result in an unacceptable safety risk (numbers: time, end-point temperatures
- commissary-9, ready-prepared-8, conventional-5, assembly serve-4
- Seven principles: conduct hazard analysis, determine CCP, establish critical limits, monitoring procedures, corrective action, verification of procedures, record-keeping and documentation protocols
- temperatures must be monitored and recorded
Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA)
FDA focus more on preventing food safety problems
Food recalls
- made by manufacturer
- monitor notifications by FDA and USDA
- remove item from inventory and store in secure and appropriate location away from food, utensils, equipment, linens
- Label item: Do not use/Do not discard
Class I: reasonable probability that eating food will cause health problems or death
Class II: remote probability of adverse health consequences from eating the food
Class III: will not cause adverse health consequences
Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act
- protects the safety and security of the food supply
- Operations Risk Management: prioritize preventive measures likely to have the greatest impact on reducing the risk of food security problems
- Bioterrorism is the intentional use of biological agents or germs to cause illness.
- ALERT identifies measures to minimize risk of food being subjected to tampering.
–Assure products are received from safe sources.
–Look (monitor) the security of production
–Employees: know who should and should not be there
–Report and keep information related to food defense accessible
–Threat: what you will do and who to contact if there is suspicious activity
PPE personal protective equipment
rubber gloves, protective glasses
HCS Hazard Communication Standard
requires plan to communicate chemical hazards to employees
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)must be available on all hazardous materials
OSHA Blood Borne Pathogens Standard
requires notice to employees of all potentially infectious materials
Safety practices
- engineering: built-in safety features of building and equipment
- education: policies, on-the-job training; keep records of accidents and injuries on the job
- enforcement: follow-up, periodic inspection using a checklist
Safe work environment
management cares about employees and works to educate employees on safe work practices, resulting in decreased lost work days and workman’s compensation costs
Integrated pest management
deny pests access, food, water, a nesting place. Use a licensed pest control operator. Install mesh screens over ventilation pipes. Inspection by state/county/city/town health inspectors
Government standards-Occupational Safety and Health Act OSHA (LAW)
- minimum safety standards; record keeping of accidents and illnesses
- inspection of facilities looking for safety hazards (wet floor), fire extinguishers, handrails on stairs, lighted passageways, first-aid suppliers
Fire Safety
- fires release carbon monoxide CO
- Class A- ordinary combustible materials, wood, paper, cloth
B- flammable liquids, gases, greases
C- live electrical fires - extinguishers
–multipurpose dry chemical (ammonium sulfate, monoammonium phosphate, mica, talc): can be used on A, B, C classes of fire
–Class K: commercial kitchens that use appliances and oils operating at much higher temps than previous oils and appliances
Preventive maintenance
- cleaning schedules and standard procedures: list of what is to be cleaned, when, how, who; bacteriological counts performed regularly
- maintain equipment and facilities in good repair; keep equipment information; record repairs, service; schedule corrective maintenance promptly
- cleanability: floor drains, cantilever equipment (wall mounted)
Chemical, cleaning supplies
- regulated by EPA
- most common chemicals used in sanitizing surfaces that touch food-countertops, pots and pans
–Chlorine solution: 50-90 ppm; pH<8
–Iodine: 12.5-25 ppm; pH<5
–Quaternary ammonia: 150-400 ppm; pH 7 - most state and local codes require immersion in chemical solutions for at least 60 seconds using water above 75 F
Facility layout
detailed arrangement of kitchen equipment, floor and counter space
Design (Equipment and Facility Planning)
overall space planning
Planning procedure (Equipment and Facility Planning)
- prepare a prospectus-planning guide -formal summary of proposed work
- organize planning team
–administrator (final approval), food service manager, architect, design consultant, equipment representatives, builder, mechanical engineer
–educate each other on their own area of expertise and prevent them from making mistakes - feasibility study-research and data analysis to justify project
- analyze menu-type, food prep methods, equipment, space
Ergonomics, environmental design-human engineering
- studies activities so they are done safely and efficiently
- comfortable seating, noise control, mobile equipment, close storage areas
- easy entrance and exit, place work areas to facilitate smooth flow patterns
Equipment and Facility Planning: space and equipment determined by:
Space determined by “market form” of foods purchased (raw, prepared, partially prepared)
Equipment based on the menu (size of batches of food and frequency)
Walls
glazed tiles 5’8” high; washable, impervious to moisture
Ceilings
acoustically treated, lighter in color than walls; 14-18’ high
Floors
resilient, durable, non-slippery
1. concrete-light traffic, absorbs grease, use in storerooms, receiving areas
2. terrazzo-cement and crushed marble; noisy, dining room
3. quarry tile (unglazed red clay tiles): kitchen and heavy traffic
4. asphalt- light traffic, dining room
Ventilation
temperature 68 F; fan system-eliminates cooking odors, moisture
Lighting
intensity measured in foot-candles (how bright the light is one foot away from the source)
1. at least 10: dry storage
2. minimum of 20: hand-washing, ware-washing, self-service food areas
3. at least 50: general lighting in food preparation and display areas
4. 70-100: localized detail work areas, reading recipes
Flow chart
show steps the work must take, their sequence, the relation of working units to each other
Typical foodservice flowchart design-little cross traffic and no backtracking
Templates
models of equipment cut to scale used in layouts
Cafeteria design
- 18” between chairs; tables 4-5’ apart
- serving width 14’: 4’ patron lane, 1’ tray slide, 2’ counter width, 4 1/2’ workers, 2 1/2’ back bar
- employee dining: 12 sq foot per person
Kitchen design
- aisle space: lane with 1 person 36-42”
–lane with >1 person, or where mobile equipment passes through 48-52”
–main traffic lane 60” - floor area: 20-30 sq ft per bed
- optimum counter height: heavy work 36”; light work 37-41”
- minimum of 6” between floor and bottom of heavy duty equipment for cleaning
- 12-24” clearance of heavy equipment from wall
Most common shapes for work area layout
- straight line-best from a time and motion point
- L shape-limited amount of space, convenient work surface
- U shape-large amount of table surface area but walking in and out addsd steps
- parallel and back-to-back parallel-very efficient
Equipment specifications
- electrical: voltage, watts, type of current
- gas: BTU British Thermal Unit
- steam: PSI pounds per square inch
- include warranty-what will be covered and for how long
National Sanitation Foundation International (NSFI)
- voluntary inspection of EQUIPMENT
- complies with food safety and sanitation standards
- equipment is SAFE: acceptable design, materials, construction, performance
- rounded tightly sealed corners and edges, surfaces are smooth and free of crevices; easy to clean, maintain, service
Underwriter’s Laboratories (UL)
voluntary inspection of electrical equipment
Equipment materials
- stainless steel-durable, wears well
– gauge measures weight of material per square foot; lower the gauge the stronger the metal
–10-14 gauge galvanized steel or 12-16 noncorrosive metals are most often used for equipment
–lighter than 16 gauge is for sides of equipment or parts where wear is light
–most saucepans are 18-20 gauge because heavier stainless steel does not conduct heat as well - aluminum: strong, lightweight, mobile equipment, storage cabinets
Finish (luster) of metals
- numbered 1-7; higher numbers, higher polish, finish, luster
- # 4 grind-standard polish, one or both sides, table tops, counters
Arrangement of equipment
avoid cross traffic, readily accessible for cleaning
Modular
components put together for customized look
1. less floor space, improved use of space and manpower
2. efficiency is increased, labor hours decreased
Three compartment sink
- wash 110-120 F
- rinse warm water
- sanitize 170 F for at least 30 seconds, or use chemical solution for 1 minute in lukewarm water (75 F)
- let pots and pans air-dry
- washed utensils should be air-dried and stored covered on a mobile cart
Dishwasher stages
- pre-rinse, pre-wash: 110-140 F
–liquifies fat, removes food before hot water coagulates protein - wash 140-160 F (lower temperature leads to greasy dishes)
–wetting action of detergent reduces surface tension - rinse 170-180 F sanitizes; booster heater
–drying agent will prevent water spots - air-dry 45 seconds
Dishwasher types
- rack: tableware placed in racks
- conveyor belt or flite type: continuous belt that moves through machine; racks used for small items (silverware)
- low energy chemical dish machine
–save energy-no booster heater; water temp at 140 F
–increase use of detergents, rinse aids, water; require longer drying time; bleach used to sanitize may stain silver; longer wash and rinse times may increase labor costs - meals per hour: up to 50; counter-style (home style)
50-250; door style, single tank
250-1500; single or double tank conveyor
1500+; flite-type conveyor
Hard water
contains a high proportion of minerals or salts. encourages formation of soap scum; more difficult for surfactants (foaming agents) in soap to form lather. need to use more detergent
Deck oven
units stacked to save space; when production is high and space is limited
Convection oven
fan for circulation; even heat distribution; more quantity; lower temp (decrease 25-35 degrees); takes less time (10-15% less)
Rotary, reel, revolving tray oven
food is in motion while inside the oven; large volume baking; now also used for meat cookery
Microwave oven
on-demand serving, saves time, reheat prepared foods
Tilting skillet
very versatile; serves as oven, fry pan, braising pan, kettle, steamer, food warmer
–stews, soups, fried chicken, grilled cheese, scrambled eggs
Steam cooking
more energy efficient than electric or gas
1. source may be direct steam, or self-generated
2. reaches at least 212 F (boiling point-produces steam)
3. measured in PSI-pounds per square inch
–temperature rises as pressure rises (PSI of 15=temp 250 F)
large batch compartment steamers
- 5-8 PSI
- fresh, defrosted, loosely packed foods; pasta, rice, stews, pot roast
- potatoes and root vegetables cook very quickly in large quantities (100lbs per compartment in 35 min)
- most other vegetables cook in 5-10 min
high pressure steamers
- 15 PSI
- cooks small batches quickly
- speed facilitates “batch cooking”-vegetables; locate next to serving line
- reduces long holding periods, better quality, fewer leftovers
no-pressure convection steamers
- compact; can handle large quantities; steam enters at 212 F (0 PSI) and is convected or circulated continuously over the food
Steam-jacketed kettle
- two sections of stainless steel with air space between for circulation of steam
- food does not touch steam; must be near a source of water and drain
- uses both conduction and radiation heating; VERY energy efficient-5-8 PSI
- types: deep, shallow, trunnion or tilting
Kettle sizes
depends on foods, volume, turnover
1. 5-20 gallons (vegetables)
2. up to 40 gallons (entrees)
3. >40 gallons (high liquid content)
Infrared tubes
keep food warm, less loss of moisture over conventional heating units
Mixers
planetary action-arm moves in circle while rotating beater
Deep-fat fryers
stainless steel (inside and outside)
1. recovery time- how quickly it returns to proper temperature after a batch of food has been cooked (batch-cooking=cook small batches quickly, French fries)
2. fry under pressure to decrease cooking time
Sustainability
food and agricultural systems meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability to meet the needs of the future.
To maintain the food system, the raw materials for foods and natural resources used for food transformation and distribution must be conserved, not depleted or degraded
Sustainable diet
composed of foods that contribute to health and also encourage the sustainability of food production
Actions in dietetic practice to support sustainability
sociologically sound, socially acceptable, economically viable
1. encourage locally grown, in season, fresh or minimally processed foods
2. conduct energy audits, choose Energy-Star (EPA and Dept of Energy) and WaterSense (EPA) water-conserving appliances
3. minimize food waste, donate leftovers, purchase recycled materials
4. for new construction or renovation, follow LEED guidelines (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
5. reuse waste water from dish-machine and sinks for lawn watering
6. replace incandescent and fluorescent tube lighting with LED and CFL
Food waste management
reduce, reuse, recycle
1. develop integrated waste management systems including source reduction, recycling and waste combustion (incineration) to reduce amount going to landfills
–60-70% of solid waste discarded is from food, napkins, straws, condiment packaging, 30-40% from food production and preparation areas
Emergency preparedness and contingency planning
- During power outage: refrigerator should keep food safely cold for about 4 hours, full freezer for 48 hours if door is closed
- Keep a 7 day inventory of shelf-stable items for the number of meals anticipated. Inventory of food products for 96 hours (hospital), or 72 hours (residential care)
- Identify source of potable water
- Coordinate availability of electrical power needed for refrigeration, hoods, stoves, freezers
- Know insurance coverage (keep printed copy with disaster plan)
- Determine recovery plan
- Work with IT to ensure needed foodservice information is on backup and is retrievable in an emergency
- Be prepared for you facility to function on its own should resources from outside not be available
- Conserve food supplies immediately: Cut back to two meals per day for nonpatients, reduce hours of cafeteria service, curtail complimentary beverages
- In a flood, foods in retort pouches would be safe
