Doing Psychology

Question 1

What is Psychology?

Answer 1

Science of mind and behaviour

Question 2

What is science (traditional view)?

Answer 2

Based on observation of pure facts = free from bias
This method of induction is limited as observations force us to make inferences to form general laws

Question 3

What is science (logical positivism - 20th century)?

Answer 3

Claims must be based on observable phenomena. This has issues as there are scientific concepts we cannot see (gravity) and there are unscientific things we can observe (astrology)

Question 4

Science of falsifiability - Karl Popper

Answer 4

used to separate science form non-science - if it can be wrong but is verified it is science e.g. only need to observe one item that dismisses claims = if all swans are white, we only need to observe on black swan to be proved wrong

Question 5

Thomas Kuhn

Answer 5

Rejected science of falsifiability as it resists anomalies and the line between science and non-science is too permissive. he says science solves puzzles consistent with paradigms that are incommensurable

Question 6

what is the mind? - monism

Answer 6

either mind (idealism) or matter (materialism)

Question 7

What is the mind? - dualism

Answer 7

both mind and matter
- cartesian dualism = mind and matter interact
- parallelism = no interaction but they are in sync
- epiphenomenalism = mind is epiphenomenon of the brain

Question 8

what is the mind? - materialism

Answer 8

how do we reduce mind to matter

Question 9

what is the mind? - identity theory

Answer 9

mind is identical to the brain
BUT multiple realizability how do different brains feel everything the same

Question 10

Functionalism

Answer 10

mind and brain are defined in terms of their function

Question 11

qualia (raw feels) problem

Answer 11

quality to experience is more than brain processing.

Question 12

Descartes (1596 - 1650)

Answer 12

philosophy method = to doubt what is certain
argued the existence of God due to infinity and perfection
principles of:
- rationalism = reason over senses
- nativism = innate
- dualism = I is distinct from body
- mechanical model of man

Question 13

Locke (1936 - 1707)

Answer 13

mechanical model
rejected nativism
empiricism = knowledge from existence / blank slate

Question 14

Hume (1711 - 1776)

Answer 14

Laws of association
Causality is unobservable

Question 15

Kant (1724 - 1804)

Answer 15

Causality is unobservable but innate
Idealism = mind structures experience the world
mental phenomena is not quantifiable so isn’t scientific

Question 16

Physiology

Answer 16

• evolutionary theory provides framework for how the mind evolves
• Galton was interested in inherited traits (used intelligence as a case for eugenic)
• reaction time experiments / reflex action / unconscious processes

Question 17

Wundt

Answer 17

father of psychology
used introspection to represent human mind
Leipzig, 1879

Question 18

Behaviourism - 1910s

Answer 18

Rejected all previous psychology as it studied the mind
reduces human behaviour to stimulus-response
studies observable behaviour

Question 19

Gestalt Psychology

Answer 19

Contrasts behaviourism
holistic studies of experiences

Question 20

cognitivism

Answer 20

mind as a computer
‘crisis’ in social psychology as behaviours must be understood in context

Question 21

Advantages of a Questionnaire

Answer 21

• large sample over large areas
• standardised
• quick, cheap and efficient
• anonymity
• examines phenomena through self-observation

Question 22

Disadvantages of a questionnaire

Answer 22

• potential for misunderstanding/misinterpretation
• social desirability bias
• ‘yes’ saying

Question 23

Purpose of a Questionnaire

Answer 23

• obtain background information on a participant
• measurement of IV or DV
• can allow for both quantitative and qualitative answers

Question 24

types of closed-ended questions

Answer 24

• MCQs
• rating scales
• dichotomous questions
• semantic differential
• rank order

Question 25

types of open ended questions

Answer 25

- numeric open ended - e.g. how many times ... - text open ended

Question 26

Advantages of open ended

Answer 26

allow respondents to write a full answer allows for unanticipated answers (disadvantages = opposite of advantages of closed)

Question 27

Advantages of closed ended

Answer 27

- simpler to code and uses statistics - less time to complete

Question 28

things to avoid in questionnaires

Answer 28

- questions that require prior knowledge - leading questions - hypothetical questions - questions that lead Ps to socially desirable answers

Question 29

questionnaire design

Answer 29

internal checks = different Qs on same subject to check answers split ballot = divide sample and give different versions of questionnaire construct validity = e.g. questions that reflect dimensions of anxiety Check = with other sources (parents/teachers etc) Logical consistency = logical sequence of questions

Question 30

Questionnaire administration

Answer 30

self-administered = high response rate, less likely to be swayed by groups, could introduce bias if the researcher is present group-administered = contamination between participants.

Question 31

Meta-analysis

Answer 31

provides a single estimate of the intervention effect or relationship between variables

Question 32

why conduct a meta-analysis?

Answer 32

- bigger sample size than primary studies = more precise effect estimate - avoids over reliance on one study - more objective and transparent than a narrative review

Question 33

meta- analysis must include:

Answer 33

- at least 2 studies - specific/linked research questions and search criteria - literature research - results from eligible studies - computing and combining effect sizes - heterogeneity of effect sizes / moderators and biases

Question 34

Cohen's d

Answer 34

standardised mean difference - comparing groups on a continuous outcome variable - = mean difference as a proportion of standard deviation

Question 35

Pearson's r

Answer 35

Correlation coefficient - associations between two continuous variables

Question 36

effect size used for binary variables

Answer 36

Odds ratio, hazard ratio, relative risk

Question 37

Visualisation of effect sizes

Answer 37

forest plot - bigger box = larger study, smaller arms = more accuracy

Question 38

heterogeneity can be due to

Answer 38

- different populations studied - different study designs - different treatment variations - different measures - differences in quality of the study

Question 39

publication bias

Answer 39

not all studies translate into publication and if specific studies are not being published this can lead to skewed results in favour of specific published phenomena

Question 40

limitations of meta-analysis

Answer 40

- garbage in = garbage out - comparing apples and oranges - file drawer problem - might exclude studies that disprove point - focus on 'bigger picture' misses' nuance

Question 41

Sports science - Savelsbergh et al. (2005)

Answer 41

investigated gaze behaviour of goal keepers during a recording of a goal kick FOUND = experts have fewer but longer fixations than novice keepers and they looked longer at the non-kicking foot of the other player BUT lab experiment so limitation

Question 42

Representative design - Brunswik (1956)

Answer 42

stated that we adapt to our natural environment so experimental stimuli must be representative of our natural environment and shouldn't be abstract tasks.

Question 43

Cognitive ethology - Kingstone et al (2008)

Answer 43

studies behaviour under realistic conditions with animals, e.g. zoos with bigger cages have more realistic animal behaviour

Question 44

Dick et al (2010) replicated Savelsbergh et al. (2005)

Answer 44

same study except included a real-world condition - they observed similar behaviour to the original study

Question 45

Statistical social scenes - Land and Tatler (2009)

Answer 45

used heat maps of where people looked to show that people fixate their eyes or follow the gaze of others BUT gaze behaviour can be influenced by language and social context and there are few social situations where these are absent mutual gaze = Birmingham et al. (2009)

Question 46

Gaze cues in the real world - McDonald & Tatler(2018)

Answer 46

tracked gaze of a pair during collaborative task (making batter for a Victoria Sponge). They found that people rarely look at each other during an interaction. too much gaze is uncomfortable