Doing Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
benefits of interviews
A
ppts own lang, allows analysis of lang and meaning
richness of life stories
discover what ppt wants to talk about
can open unanticipated areas of research
pick up cues outside of speech e.g photos, possessions tidyness
empowering participants giving them a voice
2
Q
what type of person benefits most from being empowered
A
minority groups
3
Q
describe a structured interview
A
known as quantitative interview
interview schedule w fixed set of questions
short specific q w corresponding predetermined categories w set of possible answers
sometimes free response later categorised
fixed order
no prompting/improvisation can only repeat question
formal rapport
data analysed quantitatively
4
Q
describe a semi structured interview
A
qualitative interview
interview schedule but only guides it
interviewer has topics to cover but can enter into world of ppt to develop unexpected themes - can ask non listed questions
order of q not as important
there is probing
relatively informal
data transcribed and analysed qualitatively
5
Q
describe an unstructured interview
A
qualitative interview
interview schedule but not strictly followed
order of q not important
topics to cover but want ppt to talk at length about themselves and their history in own words
probing + follow up qs
attempt to create closer relationship
6
Q
when is an unstructured interview commonly used
A
w ignored/misrepresented voices or sensitive topics
interviewer may need to develop counselling skills e.g empathy honesty and support
7
Q
qualitative interviews are on an individual basis, are focus groups?
A
no they include a group of people and are sometimes referred to as group interviews
8
Q
what is the process in a focus group
A
researcher acts as a facilitator of a small group discussion
group share a common characteristic and experience
flexible question schedule of q and can include stimulus material
9
Q
what is the general process with carrying out any research interview from start to finish
A
planning and preparing - select topic + research q, decide sort of interview, design int schedule, sample, get ethical approval
conduct interview
transcribe
analyse and write up results
10
Q
how to know if the interview schedule is a good one
A
can only know after tested it on a ppt
11
Q
what are the general guidelines for a semi structured interviews schedule (creating it)
A
base it off the research q look at literature decide on themes and broad areas sequence them in logical order for each theme design several questions and order them leave sensitive questions to the end
12
Q
guidelines for the questions in a semi structured interview schedule (question specifics)
A
start w opening up questions (general e.g demographics)
more specific questions follow
open ended q w probes
prepare prompts for q you anticipate difficulties w answering
cues as continuers e.g hmm i see
avoid jargon questions
non leading, no two in one questions, non threatening questions
close w a clean up question to allow ppt to raise issues about topic missed
13
Q
in general how do you sample qualitative interviewing
A
small sample carefully selected for research
not representative of general public
14
Q
what are three examples of non representative sampling
A
purposive sampling
snowballing
convenience
15
Q
describe purposive sampling
A
selecting people based on relevance to research question theoretical position and analytical framework
16
Q
snowballing sampling
A
word of mouth
networks to locate people who fit certain criteria
often only way to locate an otherwise invisible group
17
Q
convenience sampling
A
locating a group of people as quickly as possible in order to maximise convenience and minimise the cost - as friends colleagues students etc
18
Q
ethics - what information do you need to give about the research for ethical approval
A
the researcher, project, interview q, level of intrusion in private spheres, sensitive topics. how long
right of interviewee not to answer and withdraw at any time
what happens to info - writing findings up
level of confidentiality
benefits of the project
19
Q
who do you need approval from for the research to go ahead
A
interviewee parents or guardians research community review board institute operating under
20
Q
how do you obtain approval from the participant
A
informed consent form
get agreement to take part
establish confidentiality anonymity storage and data protection
21
Q
what does the planning stage of a qualitative interview involve
A
testing interview schedule before the interview - practice delivering the questions with people
you never know if you will get a good schedule until its been tested - dependent in interviewee and interaction
decide where to do it, public or private but needs to be quiet
how recording it
22
Q
guidelines for starting the interview
A
provide info about the research, establish consent, confidentiality how long it will take etc. establish rapport put ppt at ease
ensure no interruptions
place recorder within ppt reach (they can stop it if want)
open up questions then interview questions
ask one at a time
23
Q
things to do when in the middle of the interview
A
listen to them do not interrupt
after exploring each them, think quickly ask questions related to research aim/question
monitor their behaviour - effect of questions, uncomfortable or bored?
24
Q
what to do at the end and after the interview
A
discuss the process with the interviewee
thank them
make notes about clues beyond conversation e.g appearance facial expressions
make methodological notes
transcribe within 12 hours to maximise recall
25
what is transcribing
produce a written representation of audio (and video) recording
focus groups can also give video recording which might be transcribed
emails dont have to be transcribed
26
what are the two types of transcription and the different methods under them
```
Orthographic transcription:
thematic analysis
grounded theory
interpretative phenomenological analysis
narrative analysis
```
Jefferson transcription:
Discursive psychology
conversation analysis
27
describe orthographic transcription
```
word for word
w or w out punctuation
identification of each speaker in turn
no non linguistic cues
can have very basic ones e.g pause, stress or laugh
```
28
describe non linguistic transcription
includes non linguistic cues
pauses mms stresses laughs,
identify speaker
indication of extra linguistic features such as gestures expressions direction of gaze etc.
29
important things to remember about transcribing
transcribe but preserve anonymity (invent code name)
very time consuming so set enough aside
check against the recording produce a reliable transcription of the recorded interviews
30
how to analyse qualitative interview data
thematic analysis
grounded theory
conversation analysis/ discursive psychology(may be fine)
31
if data in qualitative interview describe significant experiences which transcribing method should i use
interpretative phenomenological analysis
32
if data is narrative in character what transcribing method use
narrative analysis
33
what is the background information for thematic analysis
method of qualitative data analysis not a methodology
very flexible can analyse any qualitative data
aim to find relevant themes
themes reflect existing theories (deductive) or can be generated from the data (inductive)
34
what is the sample for thematic analysis and the transcription method and the analysis type
sampling is usually purposive (or convenience)
small and big data sets
transcription = orthographic of what is said
analysis = step by step from coding to identifying themes
35
what other methods does thematic analysis provide a foundation for
interpretative phenomenological analysis
narrative analysis
grounded theory
all rely on thematic coding
36
what are the steps for thematic analysis
familiarise with data - rereading data, note initial ideas
generate initial codes - systematically note interesting things
search for themes in related codes
review themes - check against coded extract and entire data set
defining and naming themes - clear definition and name for each
Producing the analysis - writing about each theme and supporting the writing with compelling extract and connecting the analysis to research q
37
what are the basics of grounded theory
qualitative methodology
aim to develop theory grounded in the data (inductive development of theory)
develop middle range theory that seeks to understand interpersonal behaviours and processes
researcher involved in generating data
38
how to establish a research question for grounded theory
end up with specific research question through an active research process
any type of research question any topic
39
how to choose data in grounded theory
data of ppts views and experiences of topic of interest
theoretical or purposive sampling (choosing ppt on basis of theoretical quesiton)
rich data from intensive qualitative interviews
small and big data sets
40
what are the key characteristics of intensive interviewing
ppt w first hand experience of the topic
in depth exploration of experiences and situations in order to understand them
reliance on open ended q
objective of obtaining detailed response
follow up on unanticipated areas of inquiry
41
what are the grounded theory transcription methods
orthographic transcription
| can be supplemented with transcription of basic non linguistic cues
42
how to code for grounded theory
open coded data (line by line in vivo)
focused/selective codes
axial codes - pull several codes together in meaningful categories = themes
theoretical codes = get codes to add up to something that explains the some deeper meaning in the data
start analysis early
use what is gleaned from initial analysis to form more questions to include in the next interview
43
what is the active research process for grounded theory
collect data
line by line coding
compare codes across interviews and same interview
axial coding - build up categories
develop new interview q for next ppt
repeat until satisfied with analysis and are ready to write about categories and what they say about the ppt and meaning for topic
44
what is memo writing in grounded theory
explaining the category by writing narrative statments which explain the properties of the category
specify conditions under which the category arises
show how it relates others
after done this provide empirical evidence to support this definition of the category
45
how does memo writing lead to more data collection
leads to theoretical sampling
go back to previous ppt ask more focussed q and interview new ppt
discover variations and gaps in categories
stop when categories are saturated (when new interviews dont find more data)
46
how are objects of psychological knowledge described
using terms and definitions in line with certain theoretical and methodological assumptions which are measured in a certain way.
it is determined by what is being studied and relevant at the time.
47
how does the discipline change as new things are discovered
new terms are made to describe fields as they emerge
| example = human knowledge of innate/learned
48
what was the term for learning before it became a fundamental psychological term
acquisition of knowledge
with only a few people using the term learning
e.g applied psychologists studied training in relation to the acquisition of new technical skills but they sometimes called it learning
49
how did Ebbinghaus contribute to using the term learning
studied the ability to memories lists, used the term learning to refer to the initial part of memorisation process
after this psychologists had studied learning techniques but at this point only related to learning as a concious mental process not a formal concept
50
how did learning start to be seen in the second decade of the 20th century
learning began to mean more of a fundamental process. , it became a general psychological category that encompassed various instances of ‘learning’
51
what did R.S woodworth say in 1934
‘the work of psychology must consist very largely in the investigation of learning’ (cited in Danziger, 1997, p.108). meaning it was now a fundamental psychological category, but it no longer referred to a conscious process.
52
how was learning as a fundamental psychological concept was tied to the rise of behaviourism
behaviourism = not the understanding of the mind but the prediction and control of behaviour. This became the dominant approach within American psychology in the first half of the twentieth century and was primarily concerned with adaptations in behaviour. In this context, then, ‘learning’ referred to adaptive behaviour, not to a mental process. As a single category that covered adaptive behaviour in both humans and animals, experiments in animal ‘learning’ were used to identify laws that also governed human ‘learning’: it was assumed that the rat, the child and the adult ‘learned’ according to the same rules, and these rules related to behaviour, not the mind.
53
what were behaviourists studying when they referred to learning
they are talking about changes in behaviour not the acquisition of knowledge nor the ability to remember information nor the attempt to gain new skills
The term ‘learning’ provided a lens through which very different kinds of behaviour (in animals and humans) could be seen as essentially similar, by assuming that ‘learning’ was a thing that both animals and humans did. At the same time, by ignoring mental processes, it excluded other ways of gaining knowledge.
54
how did neo-behaviourists talk about learning in 1930
talk about cognitive aspects of learning and with the decline of behaviourism learning came to mean mental as well as behavioural phenomenon but here remains distinct from memory
55
how did wundt view memory
not fundamental psychological concept
| not a single mental activity but a product of several and memory was memory
56
what did ebbinghaus study in terms of memory
as performance
the ability to memorise
using meaningless units of information made memory amenable to quantification and experiment
57
how did frederic bartlett study memory
studied memory as a process of remembering
not a matter of quantity (in which something was either remembered or forgotten); rather, it involved qualitative changes over time.
process in which people remember and distort meaningful material
58
what did frederic bartletts studies look at
did not use meaningless syllables (which had been used because they were ideal for quantification and experimental purposes) but rather meaningful narratives (which were closer to real-life events). In doing so, he showed that the process of remembering was part of a wider social context, which shaped what was remembered and how it was recalled: memories were reconstructed in line with cultural expectations and individual views.
59
how did the bartlett memory differ from the behaviourists efforts
behaviourists didnt care about memory because was considered a mental process but learning was defined in terms of the effects of stimuli on the behaviour of animals and humans.
60
in the second half of the twentieth century the cognitive revolution and the computer metaphor of the mind lead to a reduction on the popularism of behaviourism, what did this lead to
renewed interest in memory which was being viewed in terms of encoding storage and retrieval of information
stm to ltm defined
between kinds of memory e.g semantic
prompted questions about capacity of stm
all this lead to a theoretical shift
61
alternative views of memory have since emerged what have they argued
memory cannot be reduced to an internal mental function - can utilise external world to remember as well e.g post it notes
discursive psychologists - described in talk to manage interactional concerns, it they say "as i recall" to remind people of the fallibility of memory
62
what is the the Aristotelian concept of ‘intellect’
refer to the human capacity for logical and conceptual thinking, though it was linked to the soul (and, therefore, to the rational order of the world itself, not merely to knowledge about it).
63
what is the early modern concept of ‘reason’
was considered in instrumental terms i.e. reason was seen as an instrument through which individuals could find the best means to an ends (regardless of the ends themselves).
64
what might different methods refer to smartness with
many continued to speak of God as the ‘divine intelligence’. In short, different terms might refer to religious, political, moral, theoretical or practical intelligence.
65
when did the modern psychological concept of intelligence emerge
early twentieth century. In 1901, the Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology did not have a separate entry for ‘intelligence’. The reader was referred to ‘intellect’, which was defined as ‘the capacity or faculty of knowing’
66
how did galton view early mental tests
Galton had preferred the term ‘natural ability’, which referred not only to intellectual capacity but also to zeal and hard work.
67
how did cattell view early mental tests
Cattell had coined the term ‘mental testing’ to cover a variety of basic sensory phenomena (which did not correlate with academic performance).
68
how did binet view early mental tests
Binet’s test of ‘intelligence’ was not of a specific psychological entity: he used the term because it was ‘so vague’ that it covered ‘nearly all [psychological] phenomena’. His test was designed for a practical purpose (to distinguish between ‘normal’ and ‘subnormal’ children), not to measure a thing called ‘intelligence’.
69
what else emerged at the start of the 20th century
, the notion of ‘intelligence’ as a core individual ability that was possessed in various degrees, and which could be measured by comparing performance on a test, emerged at this time.
70
how did wilhelm stern contribute to mental testing
Wilhelm Stern introduced the concept of IQ in 1912 (to refer to a single age-independent number), though this was for convenience in the comparison of results (he did not think that a similar score reflected a single phenomenon).
71
how did the stanford binet come about
In 1916, Binet’s work and the concept of IQ were translated (by Lewis Terman at Stanford) into the Stanford-Binet test, which was based on ‘normal’ children, and now treated IQ as an ability that was stable over time.
72
how have mental tests changed since then
a variety of intelligence tests have been created, which measure particular abilities that, depending on the psychologist in question, are seen as more or less related to a single core phenomenon
73
where has the demand for more specific tests come from
New forms of testing were boosted by demand from the U.S. Army during World War I, when the introduction of mass conscription caused problems in personnel selection. Psychologists argued that their new intelligence tests could help, though they had not yet been used with adults.
74
what are some of the key characteristics of the army tests
based on comparing individuals to adult mean
practically efficient for testing large numbers of people quickly
mcq to do this
created for illiterate and non english speaking people too
75
how were intelligence tests expanded to be used
in schools. It also provided the basis of subsequent debates about racial differences in IQ. In other words, there was a wider societal effect. In the process, they helped to cement the idea of a specific thing called ‘intelligence’ that could be measured by an IQ test, based on individual differences in performance on such a test.
76
describe the emergence of critical thinking being studied by psychologists
appeared in the inter-war period. wider concerns about the power of propaganda. ‘critical thinking’ was defined as an attitude as well as an ability, which could be improved (since, unless it could be improved, the concept had no practical value). Indeed, ‘critical thinking’ tests were used in schools to measure improvement before and after instruction. However, while different scholars described ‘critical thinking’ in terms of logical, scientific and reflective thinking, the latter was harder to measure via multiple choice items on a test. In practice, ‘critical thinking’ tests became largely tests of logical and (to some extent) scientific thinking. Thus, what ‘critical thinking’ was, and how it was measured, was also shaped by wider social and practical matters.
77
when did the concept of attitudes emerge
in the US during the inter war period
before this the meaning was primarily physiological
used in theatre to refer to bodily expression of inner state
78
how did darwin and some psychologists use the term attitude
describe physical expressions of emotions
| some psychologists used it to refer to motor responses
79
when was attitude made into a mental term
1909
in 1920 barely in any textbooks
1930 became widespread term
80
in 1930 what was an attitude seen as
basic psychological concept, which referred to any kind of mental disposition. It no longer referred to observable behaviour but rather to mental phenomenon that (it was assumed) caused behaviour and was acquired (so, unlike innate physiological phenomena such as the reflex, could be modified).
81
when did the measurements of attitudes begin
1920s but there was wide variety of what attitude meant and many diff forms of measurement
already surveys of public opinion but these were to gauge collective opinion about social issues not individual dispositions
82
what assumption did thurstone claim to measure attitudes scientifically
opinions were expressions of (underlying) individual dispositions (‘attitudes’). If this was assumed, he argued, then the former could be used as a measure of the latter.
83
what measure did thurlstone create for attitudes
subjects respond to stimuli of relative quantity
list of opinions ppt indicate a pro or against attitude
in doing so defined attitudes as pro or anti a particular issue
84
what did thurlstone assume in his measurement of attitudes
people interpreted the opinion statement in the same way, the only variation being in how much they were ‘for’ or ‘against’ it. By constructing a linear scale of ‘attitudes’ in this way, measurement of ‘attitudes’ was possible.
85
what was the problem with Thurlstones measure
does it actually capture what they think, attitude too concept to captured by a single index
but it did provide a scientific framework to build on top of
86
who carried on thurlstone work and simplified it
Rensis Likert 1932
87
what prompted the creation of attitude measurement scales
demand for knowledge about social attitudes
US 1920 prohibition was an issue
racial, religious prejudice problems
measurement of attitudes interest to governments and businesses
88
how did the second world war want information about attitude
military and civilian morale
effects of propaganda help establish attitude measurement as tge definitive approach to understanding attitudes as discrete individual mental entities
89
were beliefs studied in 1920
conducted research on judgement and belief
Judgement = in terms of accuracy but also in terms of preferences
belief = studied psychology of belief, degrees of conviction while psychologists became concerned with widespread superstitious beliefs (false ones) 1925 new measure of superstitious beliefs made
90
how to choose which term to use when measuring what people think
wide variety
lots of practical aims
depending on context could be described using any of the terms and some psychologists treat them interchangeably or as discrete phenomena
91
how do concepts and measure reflect certain assumptions
1970s psychology of paranormal belief became popular due to growing interest in ghosts from the public
92
what was the problem with the way psychologists studied paranormal beliefs
aim to find out why people believe in ghosts and change their mind.
measures used reflected their scepticism
included scales related to other mystical things not ghosts, these measures were therefore testing different beliefs.
93
is there a simple definition of emotion
no
94
what demonstrates the variability in definition of emotion
one survey of the literature found 92 separate psychological definitions of emotion
95
do people agree what the primary emotions may be
no they dont, fear and anger usually included but others vary hugely
some view surprise and interest as cognitive states rather than emotion.
96
what is the assumption that surprise and interest are cognitive states based on
that emotions are valenced and that surprise and interest are neutral (many have rejected this tho)
97
how was emotion referred to before the early nineteenth century
barely used except to refer to physical movement
| feelings were described in terms of passions affections sentiments which related to will and morality.
98
what did passions and affections used to be referred to before the early 19th century
passions were considered to be involuntary and in need of rational control, while affections (and sentiments) were thought to be rational preferences (or opinions). They also had a moral basis, some being considered virtuous (e.g. love, faith, hope, charity) while others were regarded as vices (e.g. anger, envy and pride).
99
what did descarte see as primary passions
they were moral
| included love, hatred but not fear and anger
100
what did david hume and adam smith view sentiments as
according to David Hume and Adam Smith, sentiments were fundamental to human nature and well-being.
101
how did the modern concept of emotion emerge
early 19th century
Thomas Brown
grouped all sentiments affects etc. into one single category of emotion, distinguishing them from intellect
102
how did darwin write about emotions
of humans and animals in terms of evolutionary theory. He defined the emotions as biological phenomena that, when triggered, caused physiological changes that could be observed in expressions (e.g. a laugh, a pout, a shrug).
103
what did alexander baines study of emotions define them as
in terms of both physiology and subjective experience.
104
how did william james define emotions
experience of physiological changes
105
wundt and behaviourists considered the subjective experience of emotion but didnt study it, what has happened since the cognitive revolution
in the second half of the twentieth century, psychologists increasingly studied emotion as something that included cognitive processes.
106
what did paul ekman define emotions as
as biological phenomena, which could be seen in facial expressions. When people expressed, say, fear or anger, their expressions were remarkably similar: they were recognizable in different cultures and seemed to be universal
107
what did ekmans definition of emotion say about emotions
emotions such as fear and anger were basic to all humans and the product of evolution. These ‘basic emotions’ were considered separate from the various kinds of behaviour and subjective experiences that were associated with them, and from more complex emotions that were shaped by social norms and understood via various languages.
108
what did cognitive psychologists prefer
a broader definition
emotion bound with cognition
emotions not merely biological phenomenon but involved an appraisal of the situation. emotion depended on the individual, some scared when others aren't - intentional state
