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dna test Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

macromolecule

A

Large biological molecules. Macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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2
Q

monomer

A

A simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers.

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3
Q

Polymers

A

made of several smaller repeating units (monomers)

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4
Q

condensation

A

DNA nucleotides join together in a condensation reaction: produces water and a covalent bond between the two nucleotides

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5
Q

hydrolysis

A

complex molecules are broken down by the water molecules added to form monomers

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6
Q

nucleic acids

A

long chains of nucleotides to make DNA or RNA, code for proteins

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7
Q

nucleotides

A

made of the sugar deoxyribose, a nitrogenous base (which can be either adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine) and a phosphate group.

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8
Q

DNA

A

a double helix molecule made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonding. between complementary base pairs

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9
Q

nitrogenous base

A

A molecule that contains nitrogen and has the chemical properties of a base. containing (A-T, G-C)

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10
Q

Phosphate group

A

The phosphate group of one nucleotide attaches to the sugar of another nucleotide (at the 3’– hydroxyl (-OH) group)

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11
Q

Deoxyribose

A

Deoxyribose is a ringed 5-carbon sugar

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12
Q

primer

A

A primer is a short nucleic acid sequence that provides a starting point for DNA synthesis. (NOT THE ACTION)

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13
Q

primase I

A

RNA primase adds short sequences of RNA to both strands to allow DNA polymerase III to bind and replicate DNA on the lagging strand. (ENZYME)

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14
Q

ribose

A

Ribose also called D-ribose, five-carbon sugar found in RNA IN eukaryotic cells

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15
Q

complementary bases

A

Hydrogen bonds found between bases of the two strands of nucleotides. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine, guanine with cytosine.

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16
Q

Phosphodiester bond

A

group of strong covalent bonds between a phosphate group and two 5-carbon ring carbohydrates in nucleotides

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17
Q

Purine

A

Adenine and Guanine

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18
Q

pyrimidines

A

Thymine and Cytosine

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19
Q

5’ and 3’

A

Each end of DNA molecule has a number. One end is referred to as 5’ (top left phosphate group) and the other end is referred to as 3’ (bottom left of carbon group). The 5’ and 3’ designations refer to the number of carbon atom in a deoxyribose sugar molecule to which a phosphate group bonds.

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20
Q

histone

A

histone is a kind of protein, nucleosome has 8

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21
Q

nucleosomes

A

Nucleosomes help to supercoil the DNA

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22
Q

genome

A

the whole of the genetic information of an organism.

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23
Q

gene

A

A heritary factor that controls a specific characteristic. It is a portion of the DNA.

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24
Q

pseudogene

A

a non-functional sequence of DNA that is homologous to an active gene

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25
Q

transposable dna

A

a segment of DNA that inserts itself into another section within the genome (i.e. ‘jumping’ genes)

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26
Q

Satellite DNA

A

a portion of the DNA consisting of tandem repeats of non-coding nucleotide sequences that occur in the genome. Tandem repeats are copies of nucleotide sequences that lie adjacent to each other.

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27
Q

STR’s

A

short tandemly repeated DNA sequences that involve a repetitive unit of 1–6 bp

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28
Q

Gyrase

A

Stabilizes DNA helix (ENZYME),

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29
Q

single-strand binding proteins

A

SSB proteins bind to the DNA strands after they have been separated and prevent the strands from re-annealing

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30
Q

dna polymerase III

A
  • Free nucleotides align opposite their complementary base partners (A = T ; G = C)
  • DNA pol III attaches to the 3’-end of the primer and covalently joins the free nucleotides together in a 5’ → 3’ direction
  • As DNA strands are antiparallel, DNA pol III moves in opposite directions on the two strands
  • On the leading strand, DNA pol III is moving towards the replication fork and can synthesise continuously
  • On the lagging strand, DNA pol III is moving away from the replication fork and synthesises in pieces (Okazaki fragments)
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31
Q

DNA polymerase I

A

DNA pol I removes the RNA primers from the lagging strand and replaces them with DNA nucleotides

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32
Q

DNA ligase

A

DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments together to form a continuous strand, covalently joining the sugar-phosphate backbones together with a phosphodiester bond

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33
Q

uracil

A

uracil is the nucleotide that is found almost exclusively in RNA.

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34
Q

Okazaki fragments

A

A relatively short fragment of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

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35
Q

Leading strand

A

the parent strand of DNA which runs in the 3’ to 5’ direction toward the fork

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36
Q

lagging strand

A

The dna strand that is replicated discontinuously(away from the fork) from the 5′ to the 3′ direction

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37
Q

prime

A

lay a foundation for DNA synthesis

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38
Q

telomeres

A

Eend of a chromosome. made of repetitive sequences of non-coding DNA that protect the chromosome from damage. Each time a cell divides, the telomeres become shorter.

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39
Q

doublehelix

A

description of the molecular shape of a double-stranded DNA molecule

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40
Q

nucleoside triphosphate

A

Free nucleotides exist in the cell as nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs)

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41
Q

complementary base pairing

A

the manner in which the nitrogenous bases of the DNA molecules align with each other.

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42
Q

antiparallel

A

two molecules that are side by side but run in opposite directions

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43
Q

semi-conservative

A

a new double-stranded DNA molecule is formed:

One strand will be from the original template molecule
One strand will be newly synthesized

44
Q

covalent bonds

A

Covalent bonds occur within each linear strand and strongly bond the bases, sugars, and phosphate groups

45
Q

h-bond

A

hydrogen bonds hold together the base pairs in the middle

46
Q

template

A

the strand used by DNA polymerase or RNA polymerase to attach complementary bases during DNA replication or RNA transcription,

47
Q

replication bubble

A

an unwound and open region of DNA where DNA replication occurs.

48
Q

dna sequence

A

DNA sequencing refers to the process by which the base order of a nucleotide sequence is shown

49
Q

amino acid

A

a set of 20 different molecules used to build proteins. Proteins consist of one or more chains of amino acids called polypeptides.

50
Q

primary protein structure

A

unique sequence of amino acids in each polypeptide chain that makes up the protein

51
Q

the central dogma of biology

A

DNA contains the information needed to make all of our proteins, and that RNA is a messenger that carries this information to the ribosomes

52
Q

transcription

A

Transcription is the process by which a DNA sequence (gene) is copied into a complementary RNA sequence by RNA polymerase.

53
Q

translation

A

Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes

54
Q

codon

A

a sequence of three RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis

55
Q

triplet

A

DNA unit for three nucleotides

56
Q

genetic code

A

Genetic code is the term we use for the way that the four bases of DNA–the A, C, G, and Ts–are strung together

57
Q

mRNA

A

a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene. the mRNA is an RNA version of the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm where proteins are made.

58
Q

prokaryotes

A

replication occurs in two opposing directions at the same time, and takes place in the cell cytoplasm, prokaryotes only have one type of RNA polymerases,

59
Q

eukaryotes

A

transcription takes place in the membrane-bounded nucleus, whereas translation takes place outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm. more than one RNA polymerase

60
Q

rna polymerase

A

an enzyme that is responsible for copying a DNA sequence into an RNA sequence, duyring the process of transcription

61
Q

promoter

A

“tells” the RNA polymerase where to start the transcription process: transcription is initiated with the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter site

62
Q

anti-sense strand

A

The antisense strand is the strand that is transcribed into RNA

63
Q

sense strand

A

the segment within double-stranded DNA that carries the translatable code in the 5′ to 3′ direction

64
Q

coding strand

A

the DNA strand whose base sequence is identical to the base sequence of the RNA transcript produced (although with thymine replaced by uracil). It is this strand which contains codons, while the non-coding strand contains anticodons.

65
Q

initiation

A

DNA is made accessible to the proteins and enzymes involved in the replication process. There are specific chromosomal locations called origins of replication where replication begins.

66
Q

elongation

A

elongation is the stage when the RNA strand gets longer, thanks to the addition of new nucleotides

67
Q

termination

A

when converging replication forks meet

68
Q

terminator

A

A sequence in DNA that signals termination of transcription to RNA Polymerase

69
Q

pre-mRNA

A

a pre-mRNA is produced through transcription of a region of DNA from a linear chromosome. This transcript must undergo processing (splicing and addition of 5’ cap and poly-A tail) while it is still in the nucleus in order to become a mature mRNA.

70
Q

5’cap

A

added to the first nucleotide in the transcript during transcription. The cap is a modified guanine (G) nucleotide, and it protects the transcript from being broken down.

71
Q

poly A tail

A

of adenine nucleotides that is added to a mRNA molecule during RNA processing

72
Q

introns

A

introns are non-coding regions of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are eliminated by splicing before translation.

73
Q

exons

A

any part of a gene that will encode a part of the final mature RNA produced by that gene after introns have been removed by RNA splicing

74
Q

rna processing

A

RNA splicing removes the introns from pre mRNA to produce the final set of instructions for the protein. As DNA is transcribed into RNA it needs to be edited to remove non-coding regions, or introns, shown in green. … The spliceosome then cuts the RNA to release the loop and join the two exons together.

75
Q

rna splicing

A

emoves the intervening, non-coding sequences of genes (introns) from pre-mRNA and joins the protein-coding sequences (exons) together in order to enable translation of mRNA into a protein.

76
Q

spliceosomes

A

assemble on RNA polymerase II transcripts from which they excise RNA sequences called introns and splice together the flanking sequences called exons.

77
Q

snRNA

A

non-coding RNA molecules. As these molecules have fundamental roles in RNA metabolism, including pre-mRNA splicing and ribosomal RNA processing

78
Q

alternative RNA splicing

A

process of selecting different combinations of splice sites within a messenger RNA precursor (pre-mRNA) to produce variably spliced mRNAs.

79
Q

gene expression

A

the process by which the instructions in our DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a protein

80
Q

epigenome

A

all of the modifications that regulate the activity (expression) of the genes is known as the epigenome

81
Q

transcription factors

A

proteins involved in the process of converting, or transcribing, DNA into RNA

82
Q

transcription activators

A

a protein (transcription factor) that increases transcription of a gene or set of genes

83
Q

transcription repressors

A

blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter, thus preventing transcription of the genes into messenger RNA.

84
Q

protein synthesis

A

the process in which cells make proteins. It occurs in two stages: transcription and translation

85
Q

tRNA

A

tRNA are responsible for matching amino acids with the appropriate codons in mRNA. Each tRNA molecule has two distinct ends, one of which binds to a specific amino acid, and the other which binds to the corresponding mRNA codon.

86
Q

rRNA

A

associates with a set of proteins to form ribosomes

87
Q

anticodon

A

a sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that bond to a complementary sequence on an mRNA molecule

88
Q

peptide bonds

A

ormed between the carboxylic acid group of one amino acid and the amino group of a second amino acid. Nucleic acids (i.e., DNA and RNA) are made up of nucleotide monomers linked via phosphodiester bonds

89
Q

polypeptide chain

A

refers to many amino acids connected by peptide bonds

90
Q

large ribosome unit

A

catalyzes the key chemical event in protein synthesis, peptide bond formation.

91
Q

small ribosome unit

A

in charge of information flow during protein synthesis. It initially finds a messenger RNA strand and, after combining with a large subunit, ensures that each codon in the message is paired with the anticodon in the proper transfer RNA.

92
Q

A/P/E -site(s)

A

The P-site (for peptidyl) is the second binding site for tRNA in the ribosome. The other two sites are the A-site (aminoacyl), which is the first binding site in the ribosome, and the E-site (exit), the third. During protein translation, the P-site holds the tRNA which is linked to the growing polypeptide chain.

93
Q

mrna binding-site

A

the ribosome and a tRNA attach to the mRNA. The tRNA is located in the ribosome’s first docking site.

94
Q

ATP

A

Translation of mRNA into a protein requires ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, exogenous protein factors and energy in the form of ATP and GTP.

95
Q

GTP

A

GTP is used as an energy source for the binding of a new amino-bound tRNA to the A site of the ribosome. GTP is also used as an energy source for the translocation of the ribosome towards the 3’ end of the mRNA.

96
Q

tRNA activating enzymes

A

Each tRNA molecule binds with a specific amino acid in the cytoplasm in a reaction catalyzed by a tRNA-activating enzyme
Each amino acid is recognized by a specific enzyme (the enzyme may recognise multiple tRNA molecules due to degeneracy)

97
Q

free ribosomes/bound ribosomes

A

Free and membrane-bound ribosomes produce different proteins. Whereas membrane-bound ribosomes produce proteins that are exported from the cell to be used elsewhere, free ribosomes produce proteins used inside the cell itself.

98
Q

nucleus

A

DNA is packed tightly in the nucleus of your cells as chromosomes

99
Q

cytoplasm

A

(RNA) is found mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell although it is usually synthesized in the nucleus.

100
Q

polysomes

A

A polyribosome (or polysome or ergosome) is a group of ribosomes bound to an mRNA molecule like “beads” on a “thread”. It consists of a complex of an mRNA molecule and two or more ribosomes that act to translate mRNA instructions into polypeptides.

101
Q

translocation

A

A translocation occurs when a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. This type of rearrangement is described as balanced if no genetic material is gained or lost in the cell. If there is a gain or loss of genetic material, the translocation is described as unbalanced

102
Q

release facotr

A

a protein that allows for the termination of translation by recognizing the termination codon or stop codon in an mRNA sequence

103
Q

mutation

A

occurs when a DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to alter the genetic message carried by that gene

104
Q

Base substitutions

A

are the simplest type of gene-level mutation, and they involve the swapping of one nucleotide for another during DNA replication. For example, during replication, a thymine nucleotide might be inserted in place of a guanine nucleotide.

105
Q

start codon

A

START codon as it the first codon in the transcribed mRNA that undergoes translation

106
Q

stop codon

A

a trinucleotide sequence within a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that signals a halt to protein synthesis

IB bio (2 decks)

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