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Biology > DNA and the genome > Flashcards

DNA and the genome Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are the three components of DNA nucleotides?

A

a phosphate molecule, a deoxyribose sugar molecule, a base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine)

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2
Q

what are two DNA strands held together by?

A

weak hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs on the nucleotides

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3
Q

what direction does a strand of DNA grow in?

A

3’ to 5’ direction

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4
Q

desribe prokaryotes

A

do not possess membrane bound organelles such as a nucleus. have a singular circular chromosome and small circular plasmids

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5
Q

describe eukaryotes

A

possess membrane bound organelles including a nucleus. have linear chromosomes in the nucleus and circular chromosomes in mitochondria and chloroplasts

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6
Q

what is the protein that DNA in eukaryotes coil around?

A

histones

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7
Q

what are two enzymes involved in DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerase and ligase.

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8
Q

what does DNA polymerase do?

A

controls the sugar phosphate bonding of individual nucleotides into the new DNA strand

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9
Q

what does ligase do?

A

joins DNA fragments together on the lagging strand

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10
Q

what must the nucleus contain for DNA replication to occur? (6)

A

DNA, primers, 4 types of DNA nucleotide, the enzymes DNA polymerase and ligase, supply of ATP (energy)

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11
Q

what does in vitro an in vivo mean?

A

in vitro- in glass (test tube)
in vivo- in organism

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12
Q

what are the temperatures in PCR? and why?

A

heated to 92-98 degress (to seperate two strands of DNA) cooled to 50-65 degrees (to allow primers to bind to target sequences) and then heated to 70-80 degress for heat tolerant DNA polymerase to replicate each strand of DNA by adding nucleotides to the primer at the 3’ end.

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13
Q

what is needed for PCR?

A

DNA template, DNA polymerase enzyme, primers, nucleotides

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14
Q

what are four functions for proteins?

A

enzymes, structural, hromones, antibodies

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15
Q

what are amino acids joined by to make proteins?

A

peptide bonds

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16
Q

what is a polypeptide?

A

a substance that contains many amino acids

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17
Q

what is gene expression?

A

the process by which specific genes are activated to produce a required protein

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18
Q

what is the structure of RNA?

A

single standed, has the same bases as DNA apart from it has a uracil base instead of thymine, and the nucleotide has a ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose

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19
Q

what are the three forms of RNA involved in protein synthesis/gene expression?

A

messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA

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20
Q

what does mRNA do?

A

formed inside the nucleus from free nuclotides and carries a copy of DNA code from the nucleus to the ribosome to direct the synthesis of proteins.

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21
Q

what does tRNA do?

A

made from a single strands of RNA which folds due to base pairing to form a cloverleaf shape. carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome for attachment to the peptide chain

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22
Q

what does rRNA do?

A

ribosomal RNA and proteins form the ribosome

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23
Q

what are introns and exons? which gets removed in RNA splicing?

A

introns- non-coding
exons- coding
introns get removed

24
Q

what is pluripotent? what type of cells are these?

A

means that the cell can differentiate into any type of cell. embryotic stem cells are pluripotent.

25
Q

what is multipotent? what type of cells are these?

A

they can only produce a limited amount of cell types. tissue stem cells are multipotent.

26
Q

what are theruputic uses of stem cells?

A

skin grafts for burns, repair of diseased or damaged organs or tissues.

27
Q

what is the genome?

A

an organisms entire DNA.

28
Q

what is a mutaion?

A

changes in the DNA that can result in no protein being synthesis or an altered protein being synthesised.

29
Q

what is single gene mutaion?

A

a change in one of the base pairs in DNA nucleotide sequence of a single gene

30
Q

what are the three types of single gene mutation?

A

substituion (which can either be missense, nonsense or splice-site), insertion and deletion.

31
Q

what are he three different types of substitution?

A

missesnse, nonsense, splice-site mutations.

32
Q

describe missense substitution.

A

the altered codon codes for an amino acid that still makes sense but not in the original sense. the organism may be affected only slightly or not at all.

33
Q

descibe nonsense substitution.

A

the change in the genetic code results in the coding for a stop codon rather than an amino acid. the shortened protein is generally non-functional.

34
Q

describe splice-site substitution.

A

an intron may be retained in error or an essential exon may not be retained in the mature transcript.

35
Q

describe splice-site substitution.

A

an intron may be retained in error or an essential exon may not be retained in the mature transcript.

36
Q

what are the two frameshift mutations?

A

insertion and deletion

37
Q

what are the two frameshift mutations?

A

insertion and deletion

38
Q

describe insertion.

A

when an extra nucleootide in inserted into the sequence. all amino acids altered due to frameshift.

39
Q

describe deletion.

A

when a nucleotide is taken out o the sequence. all amino acids are altered due to frameshift.

40
Q

what are the four chromosome structure mutations?

A

deletion, duplicaton, translocation, inversion.

41
Q

explain deletion (chromosome mutation)

A

chromosome breaks in two places, the segment in between becomes detached and removed, two ends then join up making a shorter chromosome which lacks genes.normally has a drastic effect on organism.

42
Q

explain duplication (chromosome structure mutations).

A

deleted genes from homologous partner becomes attached to one end of the first chromosome or becomes inserted somewhere along its length. results in a set of genes being repeated.

43
Q

explain translocation (chromosome structure mutation)

A

section of one chromosome breaks off and becomes attached to another chromosome that is not its homologous partner.

44
Q

explain inversion (chromosome structure mutation).

A

when a chromosome breaks off in two places and the resulting piece of dna is reversed and re-inserted into the chromosome. usually is lethal to the organism.

45
Q

What are the three different types of selection?

A

Disruptive, directional, stabilising

46
Q

Describe stabilising selection.

A

An average phenotype is selected for and extremes of the phenotype is selected against. Doesn’t change the mean value and maintains the best adapted genotypes in a population.

47
Q

Describe directional selection.

A

One extreme of the phenotype range is selected for, results in a progressive shift from the mean value as it is common during environmental change.

48
Q

Describe disruptive selection.

A

Two or more phenotypes are selected for, results in the population becoming split into two groups each with its own mean value. Occurs when two different habitats or resources become available.

49
Q

What is a species?

A

A group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring and does not normally breed with other groups.

50
Q

What is speciation?

A

When circumstances arise that interrupt gene flow between two populations causing their gene pools to diverge.

51
Q

What are two types of speciation?

A

Allopatric and sympatric.

52
Q

Describe allopatric speciation.

A

The evolution of species that are geographically isolated from one another. When gene flow between two or more populations is prevented by a geographical barrier.

53
Q

Describe sympatric speciation.

A

The evolution of species that live in the same geographic area but behavioural or ecological barriers (such as breeding patterns or food availability) prevent gene exchange.

54
Q

What is genomics?

A

The study of genomes.

55
Q

What is bioformatics?

A

The fusion of molecular biology, statistical analysis and computer technology.

56
Q

What is comparative genomics?

A

Compares sequences genomes of different organisms, same species or different types of cells from the same individuals.

57
Q

What is phylogenetics?

A

The study of evolutionary history and the relationships among different groups of organisms.

Biology (2 decks)

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