DM Flash Cards

Question 1

What is diabetes mellitus?

Answer 1

A chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia due to insulin deficiency or resistance.

Question 2

What are the two main types of diabetes mellitus?

Answer 2

Type 1 diabetes (autoimmune destruction of beta cells) and Type 2 diabetes (insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction).

Question 3

What is the primary cause of Type 1 diabetes?

Answer 3

Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to absolute insulin deficiency.

Question 4

What is the main pathophysiology of Type 2 diabetes?

Answer 4

Insulin resistance with progressive beta-cell dysfunction.

Question 5

What are common symptoms of diabetes mellitus?

Answer 5

Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, weight loss, fatigue, and blurred vision.

Question 6

What are the diagnostic criteria for diabetes mellitus?

Answer 6

Fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dL, 2-hour OGTT ≥200 mg/dL, HbA1c ≥6.5%, or random glucose ≥200 mg/dL with symptoms.

Question 7

What is the function of insulin?

Answer 7

Facilitates glucose uptake by cells, promotes glycogen synthesis, and inhibits gluconeogenesis.

Question 8

What is the role of glucagon in glucose metabolism?

Answer 8

Increases blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown and gluconeogenesis.

Question 9

What is HbA1c?

Answer 9

A measure of long-term blood glucose control over the past 2-3 months.

Question 10

What is the target HbA1c for most diabetic patients?

Answer 10

<7.0% to reduce complications.

Question 11

What are the chronic complications of diabetes?

Answer 11

Retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, cardiovascular disease, and diabetic foot ulcers.

Question 12

What is diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)?

Answer 12

A life-threatening condition caused by severe insulin deficiency leading to hyperglycemia, ketosis, and metabolic acidosis.

Question 13

What are the hallmark features of DKA?

Answer 13

Hyperglycemia, ketonemia, metabolic acidosis (low pH and bicarbonate), dehydration, and electrolyte imbalances.

Question 14

What is hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS)?

Answer 14

A severe hyperglycemic emergency in Type 2 diabetes with profound dehydration but minimal ketosis.

Question 15

What is the first-line treatment for Type 2 diabetes?

Answer 15

Lifestyle modifications (diet, exercise) and metformin.

Question 16

What is the mechanism of action of metformin?

Answer 16

Decreases hepatic glucose production and increases insulin sensitivity.

Question 17

What is the most common side effect of metformin?

Answer 17

Gastrointestinal disturbances (nausea, diarrhea).

Question 18

What is the major contraindication for metformin use?

Answer 18

Severe renal impairment (eGFR <30 mL/min).

Question 19

What are sulfonylureas and how do they work?

Answer 19

They stimulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells.

Question 20

What are common examples of sulfonylureas?

Answer 20

Glipizide, glyburide, glimepiride.

Question 21

What is a major side effect of sulfonylureas?

Answer 21

Hypoglycemia.

Question 22

What are GLP-1 receptor agonists and their mechanism of action?

Answer 22

They enhance insulin secretion, suppress glucagon release, and slow gastric emptying.

Question 23

What are examples of GLP-1 receptor agonists?

Answer 23

Liraglutide, exenatide, dulaglutide.

Question 24

What are DPP-4 inhibitors and how do they work?

Answer 24

They increase GLP-1 levels by inhibiting its degradation.

Question 25

What are examples of DPP-4 inhibitors?

Answer 25

Sitagliptin, saxagliptin, linagliptin.

Question 26

What are SGLT2 inhibitors and how do they work?

Answer 26

They increase urinary glucose excretion by inhibiting glucose reabsorption in the kidney.

Question 27

What are examples of SGLT2 inhibitors?

Answer 27

Empagliflozin, canagliflozin, dapagliflozin.

Question 28

What are thiazolidinediones (TZDs) and their mechanism of action?

Answer 28

They increase insulin sensitivity by acting on PPAR-gamma receptors.

Question 29

What are examples of TZDs?

Answer 29

Pioglitazone, rosiglitazone.

Question 30

What is a major side effect of TZDs?

Answer 30

Fluid retention leading to heart failure.

Question 31

What is the preferred insulin regimen for Type 1 diabetes?

Answer 31

Basal-bolus insulin therapy (long-acting insulin with mealtime boluses).

Question 32

What are examples of rapid-acting insulin?

Answer 32

Lispro, aspart, glulisine.

Question 33

What are examples of long-acting insulin?

Answer 33

Glargine, detemir, degludec.

Question 34

What are the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia?

Answer 34

Sweating, tremors, confusion, palpitations, and in severe cases, coma.

Question 35

How is hypoglycemia treated?

Answer 35

Oral glucose (if conscious) or IV dextrose/glucagon (if unconscious).

Question 36

What are the macrovascular complications of diabetes?

Answer 36

Coronary artery disease, stroke, and peripheral arterial disease.

Question 37

What are the microvascular complications of diabetes?

Answer 37

Diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy.

Question 38

What is the primary prevention strategy for diabetic nephropathy?

Answer 38

Blood pressure control with ACE inhibitors or ARBs.

Question 39

What are the risk factors for diabetic foot ulcers?

Answer 39

Neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease, poor glycemic control, and foot trauma.

Question 40

What is the cornerstone of diabetes management?

Answer 40

Lifestyle modification (diet, exercise) and medication adherence.

Question 41

What is the recommended blood pressure target for diabetics?

Answer 41

<130/80 mmHg.

Question 42

What is the role of aspirin in diabetes management?

Answer 42

Used for secondary prevention in patients with cardiovascular disease.

Question 43

How often should diabetics undergo eye screening for retinopathy?

Answer 43

Annually.

Question 44

What is the primary treatment for diabetic retinopathy?

Answer 44

Laser photocoagulation and anti-VEGF therapy.

Question 45

What is the role of insulin in muscle and fat metabolism?

Answer 45

Facilitates glucose uptake and inhibits lipolysis.

Question 46

What is the role of glucagon in fasting states?

Answer 46

Stimulates gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis to maintain blood glucose levels.

Question 47

What is the Somogyi effect?

Answer 47

Rebound hyperglycemia following nocturnal hypoglycemia due to counterregulatory hormone release.

Question 48

What is the Dawn phenomenon?

Answer 48

Early morning hyperglycemia due to nocturnal growth hormone secretion.

Question 49

What is gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM)?

Answer 49

Glucose intolerance first diagnosed during pregnancy.

Question 50

What are the screening tests for gestational diabetes?

Answer 50

Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 24-28 weeks gestation.

Question 51

What is the treatment for gestational diabetes?

Answer 51

Dietary modification, exercise, and insulin if needed.

Question 52

What is MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young)?

Answer 52

A monogenic form of diabetes with autosomal dominant inheritance.

Question 53

What is Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults (LADA)?

Answer 53

A slow-progressing form of Type 1 diabetes diagnosed in adulthood.

Question 54

What is the best dietary approach for diabetes management?

Answer 54

A balanced diet rich in fiber, low in refined carbohydrates, and controlled in calories.

Question 55

What is the role of physical activity in diabetes management?

Answer 55

Improves insulin sensitivity and aids in weight management.

Question 56

What are the primary goals of diabetes treatment?

Answer 56

Achieve glycemic control, prevent complications, and improve quality of life.