Division of Labour in Society (1893) - Durkheim

Question 1

What is mechanical solidarity?

Answer 1

• Based on similarity, creating a strong collective conscience that binds them together. Individuals share similar values, beliefs, and ways of life, leading to a strong sense of social cohesion
• Characterises traditional, pre-modern societies. Common in traditional societies where individuals share beliefs and values.

Question 2

What is organic solidarity?

Answer 2

Based on interdependence, with specialization of roles where individuals with specialised roles and functions play different roles but we are protected by different rights

Common in modern societies where individuals rely on one another to perform different tasks when societies undergo industrialisation and experience division of labour, they transition to organic solidarity

Question 3

According to Durkheim, what signals the emergence of modernity?

Answer 3

the increasing division of labour during the transition from traditional society to industrial, capitalist society
the path to modernity is marked by conflict, instability and crises of capitalist society (the liminal space between traditional and modern)
Durkheim saw the transition from traditional to modern as good and desirable for socety as it signifies progressiveness
Durkheim believes that the abnormalities/pathologies that arise from modernity are temporary
Note: Durkheim did not outrightly reject capitalism

Question 4

What is a critique of Durkheim’s understanding of transition from traditional to modern society?

Answer 4

Durkheim argues that the societal change is natural and spontaneous, but it is contradictory because it does not address the processes of Western colonialism and imperialism engendering the coerced societal transformations, which are effects that Durkheim witnessed during his lifetime.
Ironic because European societies had transited to industrial capitalism through revolutionary routes marked by chaos, disorder and turmoil

Question 5

What did Durkheim study to derive the types of society?

Answer 5

Criminal laws - these laws are a way to get people to conform, hence we can understand the value of society

Question 6

What kind of law/punishment characterised societies with mechanical solidarity?

Answer 6

Repressive laws:
- when someone threatens the sameness or solidarity of the society, they eradicate those who try to challenge the way of life
- publicly shame or scare you to not commit crimes
- The judge who sentences punishments is a representation of our society’s beliefs, values and norms
- Every society has some sort of law to represent and reinforce values of that time; some crimes are more severely punished than others

Question 7

What kind of law/punishment characterised societies with organic solidarity?

Answer 7

Restitutive laws:
- focuses on restoring one’s position and reintegration into society (restoring social order)
- various parts of society working together to keep each other safe

Question 8

What kind of law do modern societies shift their focus to?

Answer 8

From criminal to civil laws (e.g. family law, contractual law, procedural law)
As society’s division of labour becomes more complex, we rely on one another more as we become too specialised to be able to survive independent of one another.

Question 9

What is collective conscience? What is an example?

Answer 9

The collective conscience is the “totality of beliefs and sentiments common to average citizens”, binding individuals across generations and reflecting shared societal values.

• often characterised in traditional societies with mechanical solidarity because everyone has similar roles
• set of shared beliefs, values, and norms within a society, exists above and beyond individual members and represents the social norms that govern behavior
• For Durkheim, this collective reality is crucial for ensuring social cohesion, as it provides a framework for moral guidance and societal stability.

Question 10

What is the relationship between religion and collective conscience?

Answer 10

Religion is a form of collective conscience & plays a central role in Durkheim’s understanding of the collective conscience because it served (historically) as the main institution through which shared moral values were reinforced.

• people think in sync, forming the basis for commonality

Question 11

What are negative rights?

Answer 11

Restrains people by limiting their actions (e.g. cannot enter people’s homes without permission)

Protect individuals from harm (e.g., prohibitions against assault)

Question 12

What are positive rights?

Answer 12

Compels people to act in a certain way to fulfil complex duties and obligations (e.g. contract laws, taxes)

Question 13

What does Durkheim mean by, “An act is criminal when it offends the collective conscience”?

Answer 13

A crime is defined not by the act itself but by its violation of a society’s shared values and norms. The state codifies these violations into laws.

Question 14

How does the division of labour (DOL) impact society?

Answer 14

As DOL becomes more specialized, society progresses from mechanical to organic solidarity.
DOL fosters interdependence but can lead to anxiety as individuals navigate choices in a complex society.

Question 15

Why is organic solidarity described as more clinical and unemotional?

Answer 15

In organic solidarity, laws are formulaic and impartial, diffused within society like specialized organs, treating individuals as autonomous beings without public shaming or emotional involvement.

Question 16

What does the quote, “The division of labour becomes increasingly specialized as society progresses,” signify?

Answer 16

It reflects the shift from homogeneity in mechanical solidarity to interdependence and specialization in organic solidarity.

Question 17

What is the concept of collective effervescence in mechanical solidarity?

Answer 17

Collective effervescence refers to the shared emotional excitement and unity experienced during communal activities, often linked to religious rituals. It uplifts individuals, providing encouragement and strength, reinforcing the collective conscience.

Question 18

How does Durkheim’s idea of homo duplex relate to individual and society?

Answer 18

Homo duplex refers to the dual nature of humans as both individual and social beings. Society (the “leviathan” or brain) exerts control over individuals (the body), shaping their behaviors through social facts and collective conscience.

Question 19

What is the relationship between social facts and the law in Durkheim’s framework?

Answer 19

Social facts are reflected in laws, which codify the collective conscience. Laws evolve to address societal needs, transitioning from repressive to restitutive as societies become more complex.

Question 20

Why are crimes considered a break in social solidarity in mechanical societies?

Answer 20

In mechanical solidarity, crimes violate the shared beliefs and values of society, threatening the collective conscience. Punishments are severe to reinforce norms and eliminate deviance, maintaining social cohesion.

Question 21

The difference of collective conscious in traditional vs modern societies?

Answer 21

• In simpler societies with less division of labor, the collective conscience is stronger and more homogeneous, as individuals share similar work, experiences, and beliefs.
• In modern, complex societies, the collective conscience becomes less dominant but still crucial, serving as a moral regulation that ensures individuals act in a way that benefits the broader social order.

Question 22

Describe religion in traditional societies?

Answer 22

• in traditional societies, religious rituals and beliefs unite individuals by emphasizing the sacred and the moral duties they owe to one another. These religiously grounded values foster social integration and create a moral order.
• E.g. Totem -serves as both a religious symbol and a representation of the group’s collective identity.

Question 23

Describe religion in traditional societies?

Answer 23

• the collective conscience becomes less dependent on religion. The division of labor creates more specialized roles and increases individualism, which weakens the direct influence of religion over social life.
• Laws, national identities, political ideologies, capitalism took over role of religion

Question 24

How is the division of labour related to organic solidarity?

Answer 24

As societies evolve from simple, traditional forms to more complex, modern forms, the division of labour increases.

This leads to greater interdependence because people are specialized and rely on each other to fulfill various roles, social cohesion comes from the cooperation between different functions within the society.

Question 25

As the division of labour becomes more developed, what happens to the individual?

Answer 25

Greater DOL allows individuals to develop their personal capacities and achieve individual success thus creating greater individualism.

However, the risk of derangement [dereglement] or anomie rises. The individuals no longer have clear guidance on what is reasonable or acceptable to desire or pursue.

E.g. in modern capitalist societies with highly developed divisions of labor, individuals might chase endless economic gain because society no longer provides clear moral boundaries on how much is enough. This can result in constant dissatisfaction, frustration, and disconnection.