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Diversity Test Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a virus?

A

Small, infectious, non-living, non-cellular particles.
- no cytoplasm
- does not grow or reproduce alone
- does not reproduce or use energy
- does not create waste
- has genetic instructions that enter and control cell
- antibiotics do not work, only antivirals and vaccines
- contains genes
- hundreds of thousands of viruses fit in one cell

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2
Q

What is a prokaryote?

A
  • Unicellular
  • No nucleus
  • 1-10 micrometers
  • One chromosome
  • Floating DNA
  • Binary fission
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3
Q

What is a eukaryote?

A
  • Unicellular or multicellular
  • 100-1000 micrometers
  • Nucleus with DNA
  • 2+ chromosomes
  • Mitosis and meiosis
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4
Q

What parts make a virion?

A
  • Genes: RNA and DNA
  • Capsid (head)-Protein coat that surrounds and protects gene material
  • Envelopes are created when the virus leaves the host
  • Cell and part of cell membrane wraps around the virus
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5
Q

What does Virulentus mean?

A

Poisonous

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6
Q

Viruses with RNA

A
  • Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
  • Influenza viruses
  • Rabies
  • Measles, mumps, pneunomia, polio, common cold
  • SARS
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7
Q

Viruses with DNA

A

(usually stable/constant, vaccines effective )

  • Chickenpox, cold sores, genital herpes
  • Mononucleosis
  • Hepatitis
  • Respiratory infections, tumours
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8
Q

What are the 3 virus shapes?

A
  1. Helical
    - rod-like with capsid proteins
    winding around the core in a spiral
  2. Polyhedral/Icosahedral
    - has many sides
    - most polyhedral capsids have 20 sides
    and 12 corners
  3. Complex (Polyhedral capsid attached to a
    helical tail)
    - The tail is made of protein, which aids in binding to host cells
    - This is the typical structure of Bacteriophages (viruses that
    attack bacteria)
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9
Q

What is the lytic cycle and its steps?

A

The virus enters the cell, replicates itself hundreds of times, and then bursts out of the cell destroying it

  1. Attachment
  2. Injection/Entry
  3. Replication
  4. Assembly
  5. Release
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10
Q

_____ means breaking open

A

Lysis

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11
Q

What is the lysogenic cycle and its steps?

A

The virus enters the cell, viral DNA integrates with the host DNA and becomes inactive, the host functions normally

An environmental change may then cause the virus to enter the Lytic Cycle

  1. Attachment
  2. Injection/Entry
  3. Integration into host cell’s DNA
  4. Dormancy/Normal cell functions
  5. Triggering of viral DNA to be released and then Lytic cycle begins
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12
Q

Differences between the lytic and lysogenic cycles

A

In the lytic cycle, the viral DNA destroys cell DNA, takes over cell functions and destroys the cell/ Replicates and produces progeny phages.

In the lysogenic cycle, the viral DNA merges with cell DNA and does not destroy the cell. Does not produce progeny. Virus becomes a part of your genetics, goes dormant, and then cannot be eradicated

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13
Q

What are the three ways viruses enter living cells?

A
  1. enter bacterial cells by punching a hole in the cell wall and injecting its DNA
  2. enter plant cells through tiny rips in the cell wall
  3. enter animal cells by endocytosis (being engulfed into the cell membrane)
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14
Q

What does it mean that viruses are host specific?

A

They can usually infect one type of host or even an organ, tissue or cell type (called its HOST RANGE)

A protein on the surface of the virus has a shape that matches a molecule in the plasma membrane of its host, allowing the virus to lock onto the host cell (like a key fits in a lock)

ex. a plant virus can only attack a plant cell and not an animal cell

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15
Q

What is a vector?

A

They carry the virus from one host to another

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16
Q

What are some examples of vectors?

A
  • Insects (yellow fever – mosquitos)
  • Animals (rabies)
  • Water (polio)
  • Air (influenza, common cold, chicken pox)
  • Humans (influenza, hepatitis, HIV)
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17
Q

What are the two stories to explain the origin of the virus?

A

They could be runaway stretches of nucleic acid from a larger organism that detached and became active, therefore new viruses are forming frequently and many do not have ancestors

Viruses once lived outside of host cells, but over time due to their parasitic lifestyle, they lost the genes necessary to live outside the host

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18
Q

Bacteria

A
  • Unicellular (micrometers to half a millimeter) and found in almost every ecosystem
  • important for biogeochemical cycles and nutrient cycles, also important decomposers
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19
Q

What is the relationship between bacteria, and archaea and eukarya

A

Bacteria is thought to be the first forms of life (what archaea and eukarya evolved from), but it is unable to be confirmed due to poor fossil records

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20
Q

What are prokaryotic cells?

A

Cell with no membrane-bound organelles, no nucleus, and 1 chromosome (only cell with peptidoglycan layer, which is protein and carbs)

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21
Q

What are eukaryotic cells?

A

Any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus, 2 sets of chromosomes

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22
Q

What are the two kinds of stains?

A

Gram positive:
- purple
- thick cell wall
- more popular in archaea

Gram negative:
- pink
- thin cell wall
- more popular in bacteria

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23
Q

What are the 5 different shapes of bacteria?

A

1.Bacillus- rod shaped
2. Coccus- sphere-shaped
3. Spirillus- spiral shape
4. Vibrio- boomerang shape
5. Spirochaetes- tightly coiled shape

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24
Q

What are the 2 cluster types?

A
  1. Strepto- chain of bacteria
  2. Staphyl- grape-like cluster of bacteria
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25
Q

What is autotrophic bacteria?

A
  • Most important synthesizing substance
  • Uses solar energy to fix carbon dioxide
  • Not the same chloroplasts as plants
  • Feeds protists
  • Prokaryotic
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26
Q

What does cyanobacteria do?

A

Uses photosynthesis to make glucose (it is an autotrophic bacteria)

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27
Q

What is heterotrophic bacteria?

A
  • Obtain energy from oxidization of organic compounds
  • Number one farmed bacteria
  • Can makes human hormones
    ex. E. Coli (reproduces quickly)
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28
Q

In what 3 ways can bacteria reproduce?

A
  1. Binary fission
  2. Conjugation
  3. Spore formation
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29
Q

What is binary fission?

A
  • Not the same as mitosis as there is no nucleus
  • Cell splits in half
  • Used by majority of bacteria
  • Asexual reproduction
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30
Q

How does sexual reproduction of bacteria work?

A
  • Exchange DNA through conjugation tube
  • Exchange genes that give them an advantage (like to be resistant to antibiotics
  • Usually plasmid DNA, not genomic
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31
Q

What is an endospore?

A

A resistant asexual spore that develops inside some bacteria cells. Bacteria reduces to it when it is struggling to preserve itself

  • Exhibits no signs of life
  • Survives acid, UV rays, disinfectants, and heat
  • Can survive space travel
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32
Q

What is eubacteria?

A
  • Cell wall made of complex carbs
  • Gram positive or negative
  • Disease causing
  • Lives everywhere
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33
Q

Mutualism vs parasitism

A

Mutualism: interaction where all parties benefit (eg. nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil, or gut bacteria)

Parasitism: one party benefits, one is negatively impacted

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34
Q

What does pathogenic mean?

A

Disease causing bacteria

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35
Q

How do antibiotics work?

A

Either punch holes in bacteria OR prevent the bacteria from reproducing, produced naturally by fungus

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36
Q

What is Darwinian medicine?

A

Field of study that applies the principles of evolutionary biology to problems in medicine and public health

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37
Q

What is a superbug?

A

Bacteria that cannot be destroyed by antibiotics

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38
Q

What is bacteria used for?

A

Food preparation: lactobacillus is used for pickles

Bioremediation: cleaning up toxic chemicals from the environment

Bioengineering: mass produce genes (like insulin)

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39
Q

Fossilized remains of bacteria were found
_ billion years ago

A

4

40
Q

What is archaea?

A
  • Mostly gram negative
  • Lack peptidoglycan
  • Prokaryotic
  • Single cellular
  • Genes and metabolic pathways are more similar to eukarya than bacteria
  • Not disease causing at all
  • Can live in very harsh environments
  • Anaerobic
  • Unique lipids in cell membranes and ribosomes
  • 0.1-15 micrometers
41
Q

What is a halophile?

A

Live in salty environments (dead sea), 32% salt is required so regular oceans are not salty enough. Protists and bacteria also have halophiles.

42
Q

What is a thermophile?

A

Live in hot environments, past 80℃ (hot springs, blacks smokers)

43
Q

What is a psychrophile?

A

Live in cold environments

44
Q

What is a mesophile?

A

Live in mild environments (most of archaea)

45
Q

What is an acidophile?

A

Live in acidic environments (hydrogen sulfide)

46
Q

What does anaerobic mean?

A

Do not require oxygen

47
Q

What does obligate anaerobic mean?

A

Oxygen is toxic and deadly

48
Q

What does facultative anaerobic mean?

A

Can tolerate oxygen but does not require it

49
Q

What does aerobic mean?

A

Needs oxygen

50
Q

What does obligate aerobic mean?

A

Needs oxygen

51
Q

What does facultative aerobic mean?

A

Under normal circumstances, breathe anaerobically, but can breathe aerobically when oxygen is available

52
Q

Archaea may contibute up to __% of the Earth’s biomass

A

20

53
Q

What are the 3 types of asexual reproduction?

A
  1. Binary fission (one cell simply dividing into two)
  2. Budding (baby grows off of mom and then separates)
  3. Fragmentation (when cut in half, it becomes two organisms)
54
Q

What are methanogens?

A

Methane producers that live in animal intestines

55
Q

What is a chemotroph?

A

An organism that uses chemicals for energy

56
Q

What is a photoautotroph?

A

An organism that uses the sun for food

57
Q

How does archaea get energy?

A

Uses nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen and their waste is made of methane.

58
Q

What is a geyser?

A

Water on top of a volcano, erupts steam and kills the surrounding vegetation

59
Q

What is Europa?

A

Jupiter’s moon. Possibly holds archaea and water, which suggests that life started elsewhere

60
Q

What is archaea used for?

A
  • DNA analysis
  • Disease analysis
  • Toxic waste removal
  • PCR (DNA fingerprints)
61
Q

When did prokaryotic life begin?

A

1.5 billion years ago, so prokaryotes were alone for 2 billion years

62
Q

What is endosymbiosis?

A

A cell living within another cell
Cell folded in and created a membrane around the nucleus

63
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

Cells are engulfed and digested as food

64
Q

Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells because….

A
  • Contain membrane-bound organelles and nucleus
  • Have many chromosomes in pairs
65
Q

In what order did the organelles develop in a eukaryotic cell?

A

Endomembrane infolding forms the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria came second (endosymbiosis)

Were prokaryotes until consumed

Aerobic heterotroph

66
Q

Multicellular life began __-__ billion years ago, first thought to be ___ _____

A

1.2-1.5, red algae

67
Q

What are gametes, haploids and diploids?

A

Gametes: eggs and sperm in sexual reproduction
Haploid: 1 chromosome
Diploid: 2 chromosomes

68
Q

What is alternation of generations?

A

Switching between haploid and diploid each generation

69
Q

Why are so many organisms included in the protist kingdom?

A

They do not fit into other kingdoms and they are the most diverse group of eukaryotes. 3 groups of protists that are classified by how they get nutrients

70
Q

What are the 5 kinds of animal-like protists? (all unicellular and heterotrophic)

A

Protozoa:
- Consume others
- Possibly parasites (eg. malaria)
- First animals

Cercozoa:
- No cell wall, can change shape

Paramecia:
- Have cilia (hair-like structure that is used to move and eat)

Flagellates:
- Mutualistic
- Live in guts and break down cellulose

Sporozoa:
- Have spores at some point
- Complex organelles made to invade victim

71
Q

Reproduction stages of malaria in a mosquito

A
  1. Mosquito contracts malaria
  2. Infection spores from cyst in mosquitoes stomach goes to mosquitos salivary glands
  3. Reproduce sexually in salivary glands
  4. Mosquito injects malaria-infected saliva inside humans (does this to top blood clotting)
  5. The malaria’s swimming spores goes to the liver where it copies DNA repeatedly
  6. It infects red blood cells and hides from immune system
  7. Then it bursts and reproduces

Mosquitos are usually vegetarian but pregnant females feed on humans

72
Q

What do fungus-like protists do?

A

Feed on decomposing organisms

73
Q

What are slime molds/water molds?

A

Fungus-like protists that absorb protozoa, use mushroom spores to reproduce

74
Q

Plasmodial slime mold vs cellular slime mold

A

Plasmodial:
- Visible as slug-like on damp, decaying plant material
- Blob (plasmodium) contains many nuclei
- Feed similarly to amoeba

Cellular:
- Individual cell with one nucleus each
- Ingest bacteria or yeast cells
- Gather together when food is scarce (pseudoplasmodium), jelly-like mass with spores

75
Q

What is a plant like protist?

A

An autotrophic organism that can consume other organisms when light is unavailable

76
Q

Plant-like protist vs plants

A
  • Plants have roots, plant-like protists have cilia or flagella
    -Both have chloroplasts and use the sun for energy
77
Q

Unicellular and multicellular plant-like protists:

A

Unicellular
1. Diatoms
2. Dinoflagellates
3. Euglenoids

Multicellular
1. Green algae
2. Brown algae
3. Red algae

78
Q

What is a diatom (phylum chrysophyta)?

A
  • Most popular unicellular algae, big part of plankton
  • Asexual mainly, rarely reproduce sexually
  • Make 20-30% of atmospheric oxygen
79
Q

What is a dinoflagellate (phylum pyrrophyta)?

A
  • Unicellular
  • Photosynthetic
  • Mostly marine
  • Base for marine food chains
  • Can be bioluminescent
80
Q

What is a euglenoid?

A
  • Protist
  • Unicellular
  • Freshwater
  • 2 flagella
  • Have a light receptor to find light for photosynthesis
  • Without sun they lose their chloroplasts and start ingesting food (paramylum)
81
Q

What is algae?

A
  • Anything photosynthetic and aquatic
  • Can be protists, animals, or plants
  • Lacks certain plant materials (leaves, roots, stems, water conduction)
  • Unicellular size to sixty meters tall
82
Q

What are the differences between the 3 algaes?

A

Green algae :
- Evolved directly into plants (biochemistry of wall is different, same chlorophyll)

Brown algae:
- Rubbery, tough seaweed
- Multicellular
- Can survive rough environments

Red algae:
- Multicellular
- They do not absorb red wavelengths so they live deep in the ocean to absorb blue light

83
Q

What are fungi?

A
  • Mushrooms, mildew, yeast, molds
  • Mostly multicellular
  • Looks like a plant
  • A lot in common with animals
84
Q

What is a saprobial fungus?

A

One that decomposes dead matter and turns it into soil (extracellular digestion) and then absorbs the nutrients

85
Q

What is mycelia?

A

Network of branched fibers network of fungal threads (branches are hyphae). The bigger the mycelia, the more nutrients can be absorbed.

86
Q

What are haustoria?

A

Projections from the hyphae that penetrate the host’s cells without killing it

87
Q

How do fungi reproduce asexually and sexually?

A

Asexually:
- Fragmentation
- Budding

Sexually:
- Connect the hyphae and reproduce if compatible

88
Q

What are the 5 different kinds of fungi?

A

Imperfect fungi:
- Produce their spores asexually
- do not have a sexual phase
- Conidia (penicillin) kills bacteria (cyclosporin)

Chytrids:
- Unicellular
- Aquatic
- Parasitic or saprotrophic
- Have flagella on spores

Zygospores:
- Multicellular
- Bread molds and other saprotrophs
- Asexual, but sometimes sexual

Sac fungi:
- Largest group because it contains mildew and yeast
- Saprotrophs: eats wood and bones
- Has ascii (sacs for sex)
- Usually asexual (budding for yeast), but sometimes parasitic

Club fungi:
- Normal mushrooms
- Release basidiospores from basidia (hyphae)
- Mycelium is haploid (1 chromosome) and fuses within mating type to make diploid mushroom
- Parasites of plants and damage crops
- Hyphae is the biggest part
- Usually sexual (plasmogamy)

89
Q

What is lichen?

A
  • Composite organism because they form an organism of two different species
  • Fungus and a photosynthetic organism (green
    algae or cyanobacteria)
90
Q

What is the stoned-ape hypothesis?

A

Language developed from high homo erectus

91
Q

Plants evolved from green algae 460 million years ago. This happened because:

A
  • Contain chlorophyll a and b
  • Cellulose in cell walls
  • Store food in form of starch
  • Similarities in genetic code
92
Q

What are the 3 kinds of non-vascular plants?

A
  1. Mosses:
    Successful, thrive in diverse habitats
  2. Liverworts:
    Grow flat, many small chloroplasts per cell
  3. Hornworts:
    Flat, commonly blue-green, one large chloroplast per cell
93
Q

What are 4 kinds of seedless vascular plants?

A
  1. Whisk Ferns (Psilotophytes):
    - No leaves or roots
    - Produce spores
  2. Club Mosses (Lycopodophytes):
    - Not related to true mosses
    - Have true roots and stems
  3. Horsetails (Sphenophytes):
    - Smaller plants (1 m)
    Have silica in their cells
    - Shampoo to combat head lice
  4. Ferns (Pteridophytes):
    - Most successful of the seedless vascular plants
    - Have roots, stems, a waxy epidermis that reduces water loss
    by evaporation and stomata in their leaves for gas exchange.
    - Have fronds, which are seed leaves that grow up from rhizomes
94
Q

What are the 4 kinds of gymnosperms?

A

Conifer:
-have bark to prevent water loss
-pyramidalshape helps snow and ice slide off

Gnetophyta:
-very rare, found in southern Africa

Cycadophyta:
- Short, palm-like trees with scaly trunks

Ginkgophyta
- The only living species is Ginko biloba
- Cultivated in Asian temples

95
Q

What is an angiosperm?

A

Plants that protect their seeds within the body of a fruit. Divided into monocots (1 seed leaf) and dicots (2 seed leaves). Seed leaves (cotyledon nourish the growing embryo)

96
Q

How do angiosperms reproduce?

A

Pollen is taken from the male organ (the anthers) which contains the male gametes and is taken to the female organ (the ovary).they fuse and make a zygote

Ex. Nectar attracts pollinators, pollen sticks to them, they take it to another flower.
Male sex parts: pollen
Female sex parts: eggs, nectar

Some can self-pollinate, but it is rare

97
Q

How do gymnosperms reproduce?

A

By dispersing seeds, they do not need water to reproduce

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