Diversity Flashcards
1
Q
What does the Social and Cultural Diversity core area address?
A
It addresses how culture and social justice affect the counseling relationship and the worlds of both counselors and clients.
2
Q
According to Hays & McLeod (2018), what are counselors increasingly expected to examine?
A
Their cultural makeup, systemic influences, and biases or assumptions that may hinder affirming therapeutic relationships.
3
Q
What was the predominant racial group in the U.S. in 2015?
A
White (77.3%; 63.7% non-Hispanic).
4
Q
What percentage of the U.S. population identified as Latino in 2017?
A
Approximately 17.7%.
5
Q
What percentage of the U.S. population was foreign-born in 2014?
A
Around 13%, with Latin Americans comprising 53% of that group.
6
Q
How many NCE questions typically assess social and cultural diversity?
A
11 out of 160 scored items (7%).
7
Q
How many CPCE questions assess social and cultural diversity?
A
17 scored items, with an average difficulty index of 0.57—making it the hardest domain.
8
Q
What does CACREP Standard (a) cover?
A
Multicultural and pluralistic characteristics within and among diverse groups nationally and internationally.
9
Q
What does CACREP Standard (b) require knowledge of?
A
Theories and models of multicultural counseling, cultural identity development, and social justice/advocacy.
10
Q
What does CACREP Standard (c) focus on?
A
Multicultural counseling competencies.
11
Q
What is the focus of CACREP Standard (d)?
A
The impact of heritage, attitudes, beliefs, and acculturation on an individual’s worldview.
12
Q
What does CACREP Standard (e) address?
A
The effects of power and privilege on both counselors and clients.
13
Q
What does CACREP Standard (f) cover?
A
Help-seeking behaviors of diverse clients.
14
Q
What does CACREP Standard (g) highlight?
A
The impact of spiritual beliefs on clients’ and counselors’ worldviews.
15
Q
What is the focus of CACREP Standard (h)?
A
Strategies for identifying and eliminating barriers, prejudices, and processes of oppression and discrimination.
16
Q
What is the definition of culture in counseling?
A
Culture includes shared values, norms, practices, behaviors, attitudes, and worldviews of a group, influencing how individuals think, feel, and behave.
17
Q
What categories can culture include?
A
Race, ethnicity, gender, ability, status, sexual orientation, education, language, and geography.
18
Q
What are the three levels of culture?
A
- Universal (shared human experiences)
- Group (within-group norms)
- Individual (unique cultural identities)
19
Q
How do broad and narrow definitions of culture differ?
A
Broad definitions include many identity variables; narrow ones may focus only on race and gender.
20
Q
What is cultural encapsulation?
A
When counselors use their own cultural values to interpret client issues, ignoring the client’s worldview.
21
Q
What is multicultural counseling?
A
Counseling that integrates cultural identities and considers the impact of culture on the counseling relationship and outcomes.
22
Q
What is cultural identity in the counseling context?
A
The degree to which individuals identify with various cultural subgroups, shaping their perspective and experience.
23
Q
Why do scholars say ‘all counseling is multicultural counseling’?
A
Because every counselor-client relationship involves cultural identities that influence the process and outcomes.
24
Q
Why is attention to social and cultural diversity an ethical imperative in counseling?
A
It ensures counselors avoid cultural encapsulation and align with ACA, CACREP, and NBCC ethical standards.
25
Which major counseling documents emphasize avoiding cultural bias?
ACA Code of Ethics, CACREP Standards, NBCC Code of Ethics, and ACA division guidelines.
26
What does Ramsey (2009) say about multicultural counseling competence?
It’s an ongoing developmental process; counselors must build knowledge, awareness, and skills to work with diverse clients.
27
What must counselors consider regarding traditional theories?
They must know both strengths and limitations of traditional theories and be familiar with indigenous healing practices.
28
Should counselors always refer clients when unfamiliar with their culture?
Not necessarily. Ramsey encourages counselors to 'stretch the boundaries' of competence to increase multicultural awareness.
29
When should a counselor make a referral related to culture?
When the counseling setting cannot or will not adapt its services to meet the client’s cultural needs.
30
What are counselor educators ethically expected to do regarding diversity?
Be trained in cultural issues and teach a culturally sensitive, advocacy-based curriculum.
31
What must counselors consider when diagnosing clients?
Cultural idioms of distress and the potential for practitioner bias.
32
What should counseling researchers do to uphold ethical standards regarding culture?
Use representative samples, avoid harm in data collection, and interpret data in culturally sensitive ways.
33
What does MSJCC stand for and who developed it?
Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies, developed by Ratts et al. (2015).
34
What are the four developmental domains of the MSJCC model?
1. Counselor self-awareness
2. Counseling relationship
3. Client worldview
4. Counseling and advocacy interventions
35
What does the MSJCC framework assume about counselor and client identities?
They enter the counseling relationship with differing levels of privilege and oppression across multiple cultural identities.
36
What guides the MSJCC quadrants?
The privilege and oppression statuses of both counselor and client.
37
What six levels of action are outlined in the counseling and advocacy interventions domain?
1. Intrapersonal
2. Interpersonal
3. Institutional
4. Community
5. Public policy
6. International
38
What is an etic perspective in counseling?
A universal approach that minimizes culture, emphasizing common counseling processes across all clients.
39
What is an emic perspective in counseling?
A culture-specific approach using culturally relevant strategies, including indigenous healing and culturally-based interpretations of symptoms.
40
How are the etic and emic perspectives related?
They represent ends of a continuum from universal to culture-specific counseling approaches.
41
Why are communication patterns important in multicultural counseling?
They impact trust, empathy, and overall connection in the counselor–client relationship.
42
What should counselors consider when working with clients who are not fluent in English?
Encourage clients to use their native language if preferred, and know community resources for non-English speakers.
43
What percentage of communication is nonverbal?
Approximately 85% (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2018).
44
Why is cultural awareness of nonverbal communication important?
Nonverbal cues (e.g., eye contact, personal space) can vary in meaning across cultures.
45
What is the difference between high-context and low-context communication?
High-context: Relies heavily on nonverbal cues and environment (less said explicitly).
Low-context: Relies on verbal language to communicate clearly and directly.
46
What is paralanguage?
Verbal cues other than words, such as pitch, volume, tempo, and disfluencies like 'uh' or 'um.'
47
What does kinesics refer to?
Body movement and posture, including facial expressions, eye contact, and gestures.
48
What is chronemics in communication?
How time is perceived and used.
Monochronic: Time is linear and scheduled.
Polychronic: Time is flexible and secondary to relationships.
49
What is proxemics and what are the four interpersonal zones?
Use of personal space:
Intimate: 0–18 inches
Personal: 18 inches–4 feet
Social: 4–12 feet
Public: 12+ feet
50
What is acculturation in multicultural counseling?
It’s the process in which an individual (often an immigrant) interprets and responds to a host culture’s values in relation to their own.
51
What factors influence a client’s acculturation level?
• Years involved in the process
• Country of origin
• Age when acculturation began
52
What is the assimilation model of acculturation?
The individual fully adopts the dominant culture and rejects their original culture.
53
What is the separation model of acculturation?
The individual rejects the dominant culture and retains only their original culture.
54
What is the integration model of acculturation (also called biculturalism)?
The individual identifies with both their original culture and the host culture.
55
What is the marginalization model of acculturation?
The individual rejects both their original and the dominant culture.
56
How does strong ethnic identity affect acculturation?
It may make acculturation more difficult, especially when ethnic values contrast with dominant U.S. values.
57
What is worldview in multicultural counseling?
An individual’s perception and conceptualization of their relationship with the world.
58
What are the two worldview dimensions proposed by Sue (1978)?
1. Locus of Responsibility (internal vs. external)
2. Locus of Control (internal vs. external)
59
What are the four worldview types in Sue’s model?
1. IR–IC: Self-responsible and empowered
2. IR–EC: Self-responsible but disempowered
3. ER–IC: System responsible, but personally empowered
4. ER–EC: System responsible and disempowered
60
What are the five elements of worldview in Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck’s model?
1. Human nature (good, bad, both)
2. Relationship to nature (harmony, power over, power of)
3. Time orientation (past, present, future)
4. Activity orientation (being, being-in-becoming, doing)
5. Social relationships (lineal-hierarchal, collateral-mutual, individualistic)
61
In Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck’s model, what does being mean in the context of activity orientation?
Being refers to present-focused self-expression with an internal focus on self and being rather than doing.
62
What does being-in-becoming mean in the activity orientation of worldview?
It involves both present- and future-oriented personal development aimed at creating an integrated self.
63
What does doing signify in the activity orientation of worldview?
It reflects active engagement in tasks and accomplishments valued by external standards or society.
64
What is the lineal-hierarchal type of social relationship?
A traditional structure based on hierarchy and authority, often patriarchal in nature.
65
What is the collateral-mutual type of social relationship?
A collectivist orientation where decisions and responsibilities are shared equally among group members.
66
What defines an individualistic approach to social relationships?
A cultural orientation where individual needs and goals take precedence over group or community needs.
67
What is the definition of race in the context of multicultural counseling?
Race refers to a social and political classification system based on perceived physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture; historically linked to assumptions about genetic and biological differences.
68
What does the U.S. Census Bureau use to define an individual’s race?
Race is defined by the group with which a person most closely self-identifies.
69
Why is the concept of race now considered scientifically inappropriate?
Research shows there are fewer biological differences between racial groups than previously believed, making race more of a social construct used to justify discrimination.
70
What is color blindness and why is it problematic in counseling?
Color blindness is ignoring racial differences in an attempt to treat everyone equally. It’s problematic because it can invalidate clients’ racial experiences and hinder culturally competent counseling.
71
What is color consciousness in the context of race and counseling?
It is the heightened awareness of racial differences, often stemming from White guilt. It can lead to unintentional racism by focusing too much on race rather than the client’s concerns.
72
What is colorism?
Colorism is the preferential treatment or judgment of individuals based on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone, often valuing lighter skin closer to White features.
73
Define biracial and give two historical terms associated with it.
Biracial refers to individuals with parents from two different racial backgrounds. Historical terms include mulatto (White and Black ancestry) and mestizo (White and Native American ancestry).
74
What was the eugenics movement and its impact on biracial individuals?
The eugenics movement sought to preserve racial purity by controlling who could marry and reproduce, particularly targeting interracial unions and marginalized groups.
75
What is the difference between biracial and multiracial?
Biracial refers to individuals with two racial backgrounds; multiracial includes individuals from more than two racial lineages, including those adopted into racially diverse families.
76
What is ethnicity?
Ethnicity refers to a person’s identification with a group who share a common social or cultural background, such as language, religion, traditions, or ancestry.
77
How is ethnicity different from race?
While race is based on perceived biological traits, ethnicity relates to shared cultural or social characteristics and is more flexible and self-defined.
78
What is ethnic identity?
Ethnic identity is how strongly an individual identifies with their ethnic group, which can vary among people within the same ethnic group.
79
Give examples of ethnic groups in the U.S.
Arab Americans, Hispanic/Latinx, African Americans, Jewish Americans, Italian Americans, Japanese Americans, Irish Americans.
80
What is ethnocentrism?
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own ethnic group is superior to others, which can lead to prejudice and biased treatment in counseling.
81
What is socioeconomic status (SES)?
SES is a cultural group categorization based on income, education, occupation, and access to resources like housing and healthcare.
82
What are the four general SES categories in the U.S.?
Upper class (wealthy), middle class (comfortable), working class (paycheck to paycheck), and underclass (struggling to meet basic needs).
83
What is poverty?
Poverty is when a person or family lacks sufficient resources to meet basic needs. It may be generational (persistent over generations) or situational (due to sudden life events).
84
What is classism?
Classism is discrimination based on socioeconomic status. It can come from higher or lower SES groups and includes structural and internalized forms.
85
What is internalized classism?
Internalized classism occurs when individuals feel shame or inferiority because of their social class or financial status.
86
What is structural classism?
Structural classism refers to systems or institutions that maintain class divisions, such as legacy admissions or exclusive hiring practices.
87
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex is biological (e.g., chromosomes, hormones), while gender refers to socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities as masculine or feminine.
88
What is the difference between sex roles and gender roles?
Sex roles relate to biological functions (e.g., childbearing), while gender roles refer to culturally and socially constructed expectations of behavior and identity.
89
What is gender expression?
Gender expression is how individuals externally present their gender (e.g., through clothing, behavior), which may or may not align with societal expectations.
90
What does cisgender mean?
A person whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth.
91
What does TGNC stand for, and what does it mean?
Transgender and Gender Nonconforming; refers to individuals whose gender identity or expression differs from traditional gender norms.
92
What is male gender role conflict?
Conflict experienced by men due to traditional expectations, including pressure to succeed, emotional restriction, and tension between work and relationships.
93
Define transgender.
A broad term for people whose gender identity or expression does not align with their assigned sex at birth. It is about identity, not sexual orientation.
94
What are transsexuals?
Individuals who seek medical or surgical changes to align their physical body with their gender identity.
95
What is a cross-dresser?
Someone who wears clothes traditionally associated with the opposite gender; may or may not relate to sexual orientation or gender identity.
96
Define genderqueer.
A term for people whose gender identity does not fit into traditional binary categories of male or female.
97
What does two-spirited mean?
A Native American term for individuals embodying both male and female spirits; should not be used by non-Native individuals.
98
What is gender dysphoria?
Distress experienced when a person’s gender identity differs from their assigned sex at birth.
99
What is transphobia?
Discrimination or negative attitudes toward transgender and gender nonconforming individuals.
100
What is a trans-affirmative approach in counseling?
Supporting transgender clients through advocacy, empowerment, and affirming their gender identity and experiences.
101
What does intersex mean?
Individuals with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t fit typical definitions of male or female.
102
What is sexual orientation?
The way people prefer to meet their sexual needs and the object of their sexual attraction.
103
What are the four components of sexual identity according to Chaney and Brubaker (2018)?
Physical identity, gender identity, social sex role identity, and sexual orientation identity.
104
What does homosexual refer to?
Attraction to and fantasizing about people of the same sex; terms “gay” or “lesbian” are preferred.
105
What does heterosexual refer to?
Attraction to and fantasizing about people of the opposite sex; also known as “straight.”
106
What does bisexual refer to?
Attraction to both the opposite and same sex.
107
What is heteroflexible?
Primarily identifying as heterosexual but occasionally engaging in same-sex behavior without identifying as bisexual.
108
What does the Q in LGBTQ+ often stand for?
Questioning—someone unsure of their sexual orientation or gender identity. It can also stand for queer.
109
What does pansexual mean?
Someone whose attractions are not limited by sex or gender identity.
110
What is affectional orientation?
A broader term than sexual orientation, encompassing emotional, intellectual, and romantic attractions.
111
What are signs of a healthy sexual identity?
Awareness of needs and desires, self-expression, and contentment with one’s orientation.
112
What is heteronormativity?
The assumption that everyone is heterosexual and adheres to binary gender roles.
113
Define heterosexism.
Discrimination favoring heterosexual norms and people, often through institutional practices.
114
What is homophobia?
Fear and hatred of sexual minorities, often leading to hate crimes.
115
What is internalized homophobia?
When sexual minorities adopt negative beliefs about themselves based on heterosexist norms.
116
What is heterosexism?
The assumption that everyone is heterosexual and adheres to binary gender roles.
117
What is homoprejudice?
Prejudice against sexual minorities, suggested to be a more accurate term than 'homophobia.'
118
What is spirituality in the context of counseling?
Meaningful experiences that may involve a relationship with a divine entity, the universe, or nature, often associated with well-being and the soul.
119
How is spirituality different from religion?
Religion involves organized practices, institutions, and authorities, while spirituality is more personal and may not involve formal religious structures.
120
What are the three classifications of spirituality based on belief in deities?
Polytheistic (many gods), monotheistic (one god), and nontheistic (no god).
121
What is the core belief of Buddhism?
Attaining awareness and understanding through meditation to reduce life’s anxieties and reach nirvana; includes karma and reincarnation.
122
What does Christianity emphasize?
Belief in one God and Jesus Christ’s sacrifice; focuses on grace, forgiveness, personal growth, and a relationship with God.
123
What is the central teaching of Confucianism?
Lifelong educational and moral development, harmony, humility, and social ethics (li).
124
What is the core of Hinduism?
A pantheistic belief system centered on karma, reincarnation, meditation, and the transcendence of self.
125
What are the key practices of Islam?
Belief in Allah, prayer, charity, forgiveness, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca, guided by the Koran.
126
What does Judaism focus on?
Humble behavior, good deeds, and the teachings of the Torah, with some mystical elements in Kabbalah.
127
What are the main ideas in Taoism?
Harmony with nature, enlightenment through study, and a belief in humans’ moral center.
128
What is agnosticism?
The belief that the existence of a divine being is unknown or unknowable.
129
What is atheism?
The belief that no god or divine being exists.
130
How is spirituality relevant to counseling?
It is linked to increased health, resilience, well-being, and hope—key factors in client motivation and healing.
131
What is spiritual bypass?
Using spirituality to avoid addressing psychological or emotional pain, often leading to maladaptive outcomes.
132
Why is hope considered important in counseling and spirituality?
It helps clients envision and work toward positive change.
133
What is a disability?
A mental or physical challenge that significantly limits a person’s ability to perform daily living activities, such as self-care, mobility, breathing, communication, or learning.
134
What is ableism?
Discrimination or prejudice against individuals with disabilities, often involving underestimation of their abilities.
135
What are examples of hidden disabilities?
Disabilities not immediately visible to others, requiring individuals to justify or explain their needs or accommodations.
136
What is the purpose of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (PL 93-122)?
To prohibit discrimination against people with disabilities in federally funded programs.
137
What does the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibit?
Discrimination in employment, public services, telecommunications, and accommodations.
138
What is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)?
A law that ensures children with disabilities receive a nondiscriminatory education in the least restrictive environment.
139
Why is people-first language important in disability discourse?
It emphasizes the person before the disability (e.g., 'person with a disability' instead of 'disabled person') to promote dignity and respect.
140
Why is the term handicap discouraged?
It is considered outdated and inappropriate; person-first language is preferred to respect individuals’ identities.
141
What is the definition of social justice in counseling?
Social justice involves empowering clients and engaging in advocacy to promote equity in society and client systems.
142
What are the four main foci of social justice as outlined by Crethar (2009)?
1. Equity – Balanced distribution of services, rights, and duties.
2. Access – Fair access to resources and opportunities.
3. Participation – Right to have a say in decisions that impact one’s life.
4. Harmony – Serving the greater good by meeting the needs of all groups fairly.
143
What does equity mean in the context of social justice counseling?
Promoting fairness by reducing inequality and empowering clients to access needed services and rights.
144
Why is access important in social justice?
Access ensures that all individuals, especially marginalized ones, have fair opportunities for services, education, and decision-making power.
145
What does participation involve in social justice counseling?
Ensuring that all individuals can voice their opinions in decisions that affect their lives, thereby increasing hope, control, and motivation.
146
Define harmony in the context of social justice.
Focusing on community well-being and equitable treatment of all groups, not just serving individual or dominant group needs.
147
What ACA division supports advocacy in social justice?
Counselors for Social Justice, a division of the American Counseling Association (ACA).
148
What are the ACA Advocacy Competencies (Lewis et al., 2003)?
Guidelines developed to help counselors understand and engage in advocacy to address oppression and promote equity.
149
How does the MSJCC framework (Ratts et al., 2015) support social justice in counseling?
It extends multicultural competencies by integrating social action through self-awareness, client worldview, counseling relationships, and advocacy at six systemic levels.
150
What do privilege and oppression refer to in counseling?
A bidirectional system where individuals experience different levels of power, access, and status based on their cultural group memberships.
151
What is privilege?
The unearned benefits, advantages, and prestige received by certain groups, often at the expense of others.
152
Give examples of groups typically experiencing privilege.
Whites, males, able-bodied individuals, heterosexuals, and middle-to-upper-class individuals.
153
What is White privilege?
The societal advantages that benefit White individuals due to their skin color, such as positive media representation and better access to resources.
154
How does oppression occur?
• By force: Imposing roles or conditions (e.g., racial profiling, sexual assault).
• By deprivation: Withholding resources (e.g., denying housing or jobs based on identity).
155
What are some examples of oppression “-isms”?
Racism, sexism, heterosexism, ableism, and classism.
156
What are the three levels of oppression described by Hanna, Talley, and Guindon (2000)?
1. Primary – Direct acts of force or deprivation.
2. Secondary – Benefiting from oppression without direct involvement.
3. Tertiary – Internalized oppression by minority individuals.
157
What is tertiary oppression?
When marginalized individuals adopt the dominant group’s views to fit in, leading to internalized oppression and mental health concerns.
158
What is double or triple jeopardy?
Discrimination faced by people with multiple marginalized identities (e.g., race + gender + disability).
159
Define structural violence.
The harm caused by marginalization within political, economic, and social systems, such as lack of healthcare, employment, or education access.
160
What is prejudice?
Prejudice involves making assumptions about an individual, usually negative, based on their identity (e.g., gender, race, religion).
161
What emotion is often tied to prejudice and contributes to it?
Fear (e.g., homophobia stems from fear of same-sex couples).
162
What are Allport’s (1979) five stages of prejudice?
1. Antilocution – Sharing harmful views through speech.
2. Avoidance – Deliberate social avoidance.
3. Discrimination – Denying access to resources or rights.
4. Physical attack – Violence or threat of violence.
5. Extermination – Genocide or mass harm to groups.
163
What are three causes that sustain prejudice?
Individual personality, social traditions, and political systems.
164
What is racism?
A belief in the superiority of one race over others, often tied to physical characteristics and accompanied by the power to act on those beliefs.
165
What is covert racism?
Subtle, often unconscious racist behavior or discrimination (e.g., misdiagnosing a client due to cultural misunderstanding).
166
What is overt racism?
Obvious, deliberate, and intentional discriminatory actions or language based on race.
167
Name the three levels of racism.
1. Individual racism – Personal beliefs about racial superiority/inferiority.
2. Institutional racism – Discrimination by systems (e.g., hiring practices).
3. Cultural racism – Devaluation of non-White cultural expressions.
168
What is structural racism?
Systemic racial oppression embedded in institutions, culture, and social structures.
169
What is racial worldview?
A cultural lens through which people perceive race and transmit these beliefs to future generations.
170
What are the effects of racism on victims?
Poorer health, lower income and education, stress, depression, internalized racism, and reduced quality of life.
171
What is internalized racism?
When individuals from marginalized groups believe and adopt negative stereotypes about their own group.
172
What is sexism?
Sexism is the oppression of individuals based on gender, often rooted in the belief that males are superior and more deserving of power.
173
What are examples of sexism?
Unfair pay, the glass ceiling, unequal family labor, and exploitative media portrayals.
174
What is male privilege?
Unearned societal benefits and advantages afforded to men simply because they are male.
175
What are potential effects of sexism?
Depression, disordered eating, increased risk of interpersonal violence, trauma, and unequal opportunities.
176
What is internalized sexism?
When individuals believe that males deserve privileged status and others (e.g., women) do not.
177
What is resilience?
A person’s ability to recover, adapt, or maintain positive functioning in the face of adversity or distress.
178
What are three characteristics of resilient individuals?
1. Hopeful attitudes and worldviews
2. Supportive networks (family, friends, etc.)
3. Connected, safe communities with adequate services
179
How can counselors help build resilience in clients?
By promoting positive coping, reinforcing supportive relationships, and connecting clients with community resources.
180
What is cultural identity development?
The process by which individuals define themselves in relation to cultural groups such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and spirituality.
181
What influences cultural identity development?
Social interactions with different cultural groups, and experiences of privilege and oppression.
182
Is cultural identity development static or dynamic?
It is dynamic—always changing and evolving based on social experiences and cognitive complexity.
183
What is the benefit of a positive cultural identity?
It is linked to better mental health and more effective cross-cultural relationships.
184
What are Gray’s (2018) common themes in cultural identity development?
1. Unawareness or denial of group membership
2. Conflict or anxiety when encountering cultural differences
3. Retreat into own group and cautious interaction with others
4. Integration of cultural identity with self
5. Advocacy for oppressed cultural groups
185
Can individuals experience multiple cultural identity development processes at once?
Yes, due to their intersectional identities (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation, spirituality).
186
What does the term Nigrescence mean in Cross’s model?
It refers to the process of “becoming Black” or developing a strong Black identity.
187
What are the 5 stages in Cross’s Nigrescence Model?
1. Preencounter – Race is not central; may internalize anti-Black attitudes.
2. Encounter – A racialized event causes questioning of identity.
3. Immersion–Emersion – Retreat into Black identity, then reemerge with deeper understanding.
4. Internalization – Acceptance of Black identity and integration with other identities.
5. Internalization–Commitment – Strong commitment to social justice and Black advocacy.
188
What is the goal of Helms’s People of Color Racial Identity Development (POCRID) Model?
To describe the racial identity development of all people of color, adapting Cross’s framework.
189
What are the 5 statuses in Helms’s POCRID Model?
1. Conformity – Internalized stereotypes; may distance from own group.
2. Dissonance – Conflict and awakening to the realities of racism.
3. Immersion–Emersion – Rejection of White culture; pride in own racial group.
4. Internalization – Broader understanding of self and solidarity with other oppressed groups.
5. Integrative Awareness – Complex view of race; commitment to fighting all forms of oppression.
190
What is the main developmental issue in Helms’s White Racial Identity Development (WRID) model?
Abandonment of entitlement—Whites develop a more complex racial identity as they relinquish unearned privileges.
191
What are the 6 statuses in Helms’s WRID Model?
1. Contact – Unaware of racism; denial of race as a factor.
2. Disintegration – Awareness of racism creates guilt, anxiety, anger.
3. Reintegration – Regression into belief in White superiority.
4. Pseudo-Independence – Intellectualized, superficial commitment to racial issues.
5. Immersion–Emersion – Renewed efforts to understand and redefine Whiteness.
6. Autonomy – Advocacy for racial justice; relinquishing privilege.
192
What is Helms’s Racial Interaction Theory?
It conceptualizes how racial identity statuses affect interactions between Whites and people of color.
193
What are the 3 types of racial interactions in Helms’s Racial Interaction Theory?
1. Parallel – Similar identity statuses; harmony or mutual avoidance.
2. Regressive – Powerholder (e.g., White person) is at a lower identity status; likely to cause frustration or rupture.
3. Progressive – Powerholder is at a more advanced status; promotes growth for both parties.
194
What is the focus of Hardiman’s White Racial Identity Development Model?
Integrating one’s Whiteness with other components of identity.
195
What are the 5 stages of Hardiman’s WRID Model?
1. Naiveté – Categorizing others by race and absorbing privilege-based messages.
2. Acceptance – Belief in equal opportunity, yet White norms are the standard.
3. Resistance – Conflict about privilege after meaningful cross-racial experiences.
4. Redefinition – Reflecting on one’s ethnic identity (beyond Whiteness).
5. Internalization – Comfortable White identity; no longer defined by earlier conflict.
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What is gender identity?
It refers to the degree to which individuals endorse gender role expressions associated with their perceived gender, which may or may not align with biological sex.
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What is the focus of Downing and Roush’s (1985) feminist identity development model?
To explain how women develop gender identity in a sexist society by addressing internalized sexism and building feminist awareness.
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What are the 5 stages of Downing and Roush’s feminist identity development model?
1. Passive Acceptance – Internalization of traditional gender roles; rejection of feminism.
2. Revelation – Salient sexist event triggers awareness; dualistic thinking may occur.
3. Embeddedness–Emanation – Development of support networks; guardedness toward men.
4. Synthesis – Feminist identity is integrated with personal and cultural values.
5. Active Commitment – Advocacy for women and efforts to fight sexism.
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What is gender self-confidence in Hoffman’s (2006) model?
The degree to which a person defines and accepts themselves based on traditional gender roles of masculinity or femininity.
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What are the 4 statuses in Hoffman’s feminist identity development model?
1. Unexamined Female Identity – Acceptance of traditional gender roles.
2. Crisis – Awareness of societal sexism, usually from significant events.
3. Moratorium and Equilibrium – Active search for a feminist identity.
4. Achieved Female Identity – Synthesis of feminist identity with overall self-concept; high gender self-confidence.
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What is the main focus of Cass’s (1979) gay identity development model?
It outlines a linear six-stage process for developing a gay identity, from initial awareness to identity integration.
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What are the six stages of Cass’s gay identity development model?
1. Conscious Awareness – Feeling different; awareness of possible non-heterosexuality.
2. Identity Comparison – Weighing aspects of a gay identity; possibly passing as straight.
3. Identity Tolerance – Desire for connection with the gay community; distancing from heterosexuals.
4. Identity Acceptance – Active commitment to the gay community.
5. Identity Pride – Strong identification with a gay identity; possible activism.
6. Identity Synthesis – Integration of gay identity with other aspects of self.
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How does Troiden’s (1989) model differ from Cass’s?
Troiden emphasized the role of social context and described the identity process as nonlinear, with a focus on emotional and cognitive development.
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What are the four stages of Troiden’s gay identity development model?
1. Sensitization – Awareness of same-sex attraction and feeling different.
2. Identity Confusion – Questioning sexual orientation; incongruence with societal norms.
3. Identity Assumption – Exploration of the gay community; coming out.
4. Commitment – Full acceptance and integration of a gay identity.
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What is unique about McCarn & Fassinger’s (1996) model?
It includes two parallel processes: one at the individual level and one at the group level, addressing intersectional and diverse gay identities.
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What are the four statuses in McCarn & Fassinger’s gay identity development model?
1. Awareness – Feeling different (individual); recognizing non-heterosexual identities (group).
2. Exploration – Developing attractions and seeking belonging (individual & group).
3. Deepening Commitment – Confirming gay identity and commitment to gay community.
4. Identity Integration – Integrating gay identity with other identities; cultural synthesis.
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What are the four stages of bisexual identity development (Weinberg et al., 1994)?
1. Initial Confusion – Anxiety about attraction to both sexes.
2. Finding and Applying the Label – Embracing the bisexual label.
3. Settling into the Identity – Greater comfort and acceptance.
4. Continued Uncertainty – Occasional doubt about identity.
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What are the five statuses of heterosexual identity development (Worthington et al., 2002)?
1. Unexplored Commitment – Acceptance without exploration.
2. Active Exploration – Increased awareness of heterosexuality and privilege.
3. Diffusion – No clear commitment or exploration.
4. Deepening and Commitment – Commitment and acknowledgment of privilege.
5. Synthesis – Integrated self-concept including attitudes toward others’ sexual identities.
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What are four stages of spiritual identity development according to Poll & Smith, 2003?
1. Pre-Awareness – Spirituality is not considered important.
2. Awakening – Awareness of being a spiritual being, often after a triggering event.
3. Recognition – Spirituality becomes part of life experiences; practices begin.
4. Integration – Spirituality is fully integrated into one’s overall self-concept.
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What percentage of the U.S. population is African American, and what are their regions of origin?
African Americans make up about 13.2% of the U.S. population. Their ancestry includes origins from Africa, the Caribbean, the West Indies, Latin America, central Europe, and South America.
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What is unique about the historical migration of African Americans?
Unlike other immigrant groups, African Americans were enslaved and forcibly brought to the U.S. beginning in the 1600s for indentured servitude.
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What is colorism and the one drop rule in African American history?
Colorism refers to discrimination based on skin tone within the Black community. The “one drop rule” classified individuals with any Black ancestry as Black, placing them in a lower social status.
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What were the Jim Crow laws?
Enacted after slavery ended in 1865, Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation and maintained social and economic inequality for African Americans.
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What mental health challenges are prevalent among African Americans?
Depression, anxiety, PTSD, and schizophrenia occur at similar rates as in Whites, but African Americans are more likely to be overdiagnosed and impacted by systemic stressors.
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What are common environmental stressors that impact African American mental health?
Poverty, high unemployment, limited education and career opportunities, high incarceration rates, urban violence, and single-parent households contribute to stress.
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What are key African American cultural values related to family and relationships?
Emphasis on kinship networks, extended family, caring for children and elders, respect for elders, collectivism, and egalitarian gender roles.
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What are additional cultural values often seen in African American communities?
Spiritual or religious orientation, harmony with nature, emphasis on education, flexible time orientation, racial socialization, and assertive communication styles.
