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A-level Geography > Diverse places > Flashcards

Diverse places Flashcards

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1
Q

Population density

A

The number of people per unit measure (usually km²). The total population of a given area divided by its area

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2
Q

Birth rate

A

total number of live human births per 1,000 population in a year

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3
Q

Mortality rate

A

total number of deaths per 1,000 population

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4
Q

Fertility rate

A

How many babies are born per fertile woman (15-44) divided by two (replacement rate)

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5
Q

Inequality

A

An unfair situation or distribution of assets and resources. The idea that people have different levels of authority, competence and outcomes

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6
Q

Infrastructure

A

The basic physical systems of a place
Social infrastructure = public housing, hospitals, schools etc
Economic infrastructure = highways, energy distribution, water etc

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7
Q

Demographic transition model

A

A model representing changing rates of fertility and mortality over time, their changing balances and their net effects on population growth. Suggests that there is a correlation between the development of a country and its birth and death rates, and any changes to these are gradual

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8
Q

Stage 1 of the demographic transition model

A

Stage 1:
- high birth and death rates
- total population tends to be low and there isn’t much change in population size
- country tends to be poorly developed and have little wealth to spend on services such as health education
- most employment is primary industries which is intensive labour and low income
- birth rates are high due to lack of contraception, religious beliefs, lack of education and high infant mortality
- death rates are high because of lack of safe drinking water and sanitation, malnutrition and lack of access to healthcare

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9
Q

Stage 2 of the demographic transition model

A

Stage 2:
- death rates begin to fall while birth rates stay high
- population size starts to increase rapidly
- because the country often becomes more developed, meaning it has more money spent on healthcare, which has a huge impact on reducing the death rate
- epidemics and disease are better understood, households develop basic understanding of sanitation and transmission of diseases
- improvements in farming and mining practices (more machinery) reducing injuries and fatalities
- secondary industry develops, offering higher paid and more secure jobs
- income is more consistent and standard of living improves

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10
Q

Stage 3 of the demographic transition model

A

stage 3:
- death rate continues to decrease while birth rates decrease
- population expands
- women often have more rights, increased access to family planning and contraception
- focus on career means women have fewer children and children later on
- a move away from the primary industry means families need fewer kids to help work on the land

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11
Q

Stage 4 of the demographic transition model

A

Stage 4:
- birth and death rates are much lower and plateau
- population continues to grow slowly as migrants from other countries are attracted to employment opportunities and better quality of life
- migrants can fill skills gaps and keep services and industries growing

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12
Q

What are the drawbacks of the demographic transition model

A
  • it suggests that population change is gradual which doesn’t take into account sudden population growth due to migration or disasters resulting in rapid population loss
  • it doesn’t consider countries whose development worsens through conflict of natural disaster
    e.g. Syria or Haiti
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13
Q

Population distribution in the UK

A
  • the population of the UK is unevenly distributed due to the condition of the land
  • 84% of the UK’s population is in England, as it has low-lying hospitable land
  • the population density is highest in the South East (London)
  • lowest population in rural areas
  • rapid population growth in areas of economic development (major cities, especially London and the South-East)
  • The populations of the Scottish coast and Cumbria are declining from lack of employment opportunities and counter-urbanisation from deindustrialised cities such as Bradford
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14
Q

Reasons for UK population changes

A

Birth rate decline:
- free access to and education on contraception
- UK becoming less religious, meaning more people use contraception, have less pressure to get married and have children
- increased financial cost of raising a child
- advancement of women
Death rate decrease:
- advancements in medicine and improved access to healthcare
- immunisation/eradication of diseases
- clean water and sanitation (100% have access to clean water)
Large increase in international migration to the UK:
- political alliances
- lower price of long distance travel
- war and conflict
- increased employment opportunities

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15
Q

Why might lifestyle choices limit the life expectancy of Western countries

A
  • smoking and alcohol consumption, which can lead to lung and liver cancer
  • unbalanced diet, which can lead to obesity and t2 diabetes
  • sedentary lifestyle, office jobs
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16
Q

What is the ‘North-South drift and what factors contribute to it?

A

The redistribution of the population from population growth being concentrated in the South of England due to:
- rising economic prosperity of London and the South East, becoming a global centre for finance and business and a hub of modern service industries
- the decline of manufacturing industries in the Midlands and the North of England and the collapse of traditional heavy industries in the North east such as coalmining and steel production due to foreign competition
This results in a spatial pattern of growth and decline

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17
Q

Agglomeration

A

a continuous urban spread constituting a town and it’s adjoining outgrowths, or two or more physically contiguous towns

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18
Q

An idealised profile of urban population density

A
  • overall, there is a gradient of declining population densities with increasing distance from the town of city centre
  • There is low population density in the central business district (CBD) as the residential population has been replaced by commercial and public buildings
  • the population density peaks in the inner-urban fringe, where there is densely packed terraced housing or it has been replaced by high-rise blocks of flats
  • then there is a depression in density reflecting the low density suburban housing buildings built in the interwar period (1918-1939)
  • density then increases, ending in a ‘cliff’ where density decrease abruptly at the urban fringe
  • houses built after WWII had higher densities due to changes in planning controls
  • large estates of housing on the urban fringe
  • the creation of green belts to stop urban growth into the countryside rapidly decreases density
  • population densities continue to decline as the settlements become more rural, apart from commuter settlements and market towns
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19
Q

What factors affect the population density of areas within a city

A
  • physical environment, flat areas are more likely have residential development
  • socio-economic status, often expensive large housing is in the west (windward side) of a city to avoid atmospheric pollution, so poorer, more dense housing tends to be located where there is pollution in the eastward side
  • dwelling type and household size
  • functions, the distribution of non-residential activities
  • planning, planners control the density of all new residential developments and the creation of green belts
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20
Q

Life expectancy

A

The average number of years from birth that a person born in a particular year can expect to live. In developed countries, women have a greater life expectancy than men

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21
Q

Central business district (CBD)

A

The centre of a city, containing a high density of businesses and TNC headquarters

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22
Q

Population pyramid

A

A representation of a country’s population broken down by gender and age

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23
Q

International migration

A

Migration across national borders

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24
Q

Internal migration

A

Migration from one part of the country to another

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25
Q

What are the two main types of internal migration

A

Rural-urban migration
Counterurbanisation (urban-rural)

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26
Q

Family size

A

Number of children and parents/guardians living together in one household. Conditioned by cultural and socio-economic factors
- shrinking in the UK partly due to the changing status of women

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27
Q

Urban population structure

A
  • high population densities over large areas
  • younger population (20-40 years) leads to high fertility rates and high population growth
  • more ethnically diverse population
  • mortality rates conditioned by two opposing forces, better access to healthcare and the stress and pace of urban living
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28
Q

Rural population structure

A
  • population density and structure varies considerably depending on physical environment, accessibility and historical factors (function)
  • lower population densities
    (raised densities in compact traditional villages and commuter dormitories)
  • older population (50+) meaning lower fertility rates and higher mortality rates
  • low levels of international migration, so less ethnically diverse population
  • growth comes from internal migration
29
Q

Net migration

A

The balance between emigration and immigration in a population. Takes into account internal and international migration

30
Q

Natural increase

A

then birth rate exceeds death rate in a population, so the population increases

31
Q

The spiral of decline in rural areas

A
  • young people leave for better opportunities in urban areas
  • employers find it difficult to recruit labour
  • reduced investment in the area means businesses close
  • less money, less employment and fewer people leads to shops and services declining
  • people become more aware of the general decline and lower quality of life (people start to move out)
32
Q

Positive and negatives of second homes

A

+ bring in temporary residents
+ development of tourism brings more money into the area
- ‘ghost town’ effect for the majority of the year
- local services aren’t in use, so leads to closure
- pushes up property prices so they are out of reach of local people and young people

33
Q

Downsides of rural retirement

A
  • travel much further to access services
  • countryside dwellings are often old and not ‘future-proof’
  • ability to access technology is important in rural areas
  • isolation and loneliness
  • rural public transport is in decline
  • tensions between newcomers and long time residents, fear that ‘urban people’ may change the character of the area
34
Q

International immigration into rural areas

A

e.g. Boston, Lincolnshire
- high percentage of Eastern European migrants, especially from ‘new-EU’ countries such as Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Latvia
Pull Factors:
- more pay for farm labour work in UK
- lower cost of living and housing in rural areas
- preference for small town living (cultural, similar to home)
- cultural specific restaurants and supermarkets established
Positives:
- farmers pleased by lots of cheap, hard working labour
- fills unappealing seasonal work
- new cultures (restaurants etc) established
Negatives:
- long working hours, often exploited as there is no trade union protection
- lack of integration with community (Boston voted for Brexit)

35
Q

Social progress

A

the idea that societies can or dop improve in terms of their social, political and economic structures over time
- can be measured through Index of multiple deprivation

36
Q

Rural challenges

A
  • majority of the economy is agriculture, leisure and tourism
  • this leads to underemployment, as majority is seasonal work. Lack of economic diversity and growth
  • rural areas often lack modern infrastructure (road systems, internet, motorways)
  • lack of affordable housing due to highly restrictive building policies, second homes and holiday lets. Lack of housing drives up property prices. Drives young people away to move to urban areas
  • lack of access to services, services are less well funded
  • conservation of the environment is threatened from tourism and modern agricultural practices
37
Q

Pathways of cultural change

A

A changing mix of ethnic groups:
- initially caused by immigration
- consolidated if immigrants become concentrated in particular places and if their rates of natural increase are higher than average
- second and third generations of immigrants moving out to new places are likely to keep changing the culture

The gradual dissemination of a constantly updated ‘new’ culture by the mass media:
- globalisation of culture
- Modern communications are promoting and spreading an international culture or lifestyle
- The media are now the global exporters of a western culture rooted in Europe and North America
- distinguished by its emphasis on consumerism and consumption, democracy and technology
- within the UK, changes in global culture to first impact on London and other leading cities, and then ripple out from them

38
Q

Cultural change

A

The modification of a society through innovation invention, discovery or contact with other societies.

39
Q

A sense of place

A
  • from a person identifying themselves in relation to a particular location, most obviously the place where they live. - involves experience of a particular landscape and a knowledge of its people and their culture
  • The perceptions associations and experiences of individuals
  • the common understanding of a place shared by social or cultural groups.
40
Q

Urban reality the lived experience of an urban place

A

High living costs
- high cost of housing neutralizes the strong attraction of relatively high salary levels
- financial and physical costs of commuting
- generally higher costs of food
Low environmental quality
- unsatisfactory or substandard housing
- atmospheric pollution, particularly at street level
- noise and light pollution
- antisocial behavior
Crime
- the average crime rates in rural areas are predominantly lower compared to urban areas
- crime rates vary within urban areas.
- The pace and stress associated with living in the UK’s largest cities
- the social polarization between the extremes of great wealth and abject poverty.

41
Q

current crime fears and political generation.

A
  • There is a strong correlation between current crime fears and their political generation. - those for those that grew up during the Blair and Brown Labour governments during the late 1990s to 2010, respondents were more worried about local crimes such as noise and vandalism, which were of greater emphasis during this time.
42
Q

Social isolation

A
  • A complete or nearly complete lack of contact with people from society
  • It differs from loneliness, which is a temporary lack of contact with other people
43
Q

Social isolation in newly arrived immigrants

A
  • Many newly arrived immigrants initially have feelings of exclusion and social isolation from the wider community due to language barriers and culture of tradition
  • These feelings can be diluted over time by becoming assimilated into UK society or living close to and feeling at ease with others within a community.
44
Q

Social isolation in the elderly

A
  • Many elderly people who have remained in urban areas feel increasingly vulnerable and threatened by concerns about their personal safety and property and about rising incidents of crime
  • Although there has been several public campaigns on loneliness, 1 in 12 older people consider themselves to feel lonely often.
45
Q

Population demographics, gender imbalances

A

-China’s population has a gender imbalance
where there are more males than females as a result of the One Child Policy causing couples to abandon daughters
in favour of having sons instead.
- countries such as Qatar that attract skilled and unskilled labour from developing countries leads to more males than females
- countries in conflict may have more females than males due to males being killed in the war

46
Q

Different levels of cultural diversity in places

A

Explained by social clustering, accessibility to key cities, physical factors and government planning
- Usually, migrants tend to cluster in one area, creating a culturally rich place (such as Southall in London being called ‘Little India’ )

47
Q

counter-urbanisation

A

the movement of people and employment from major cities to smaller settlements and rural places located beyond the city, or to more distant smaller cities and towns
- people pursuing the rural idyll

48
Q

perceptions and population structures of inner-city vs suburban areas

A
  • experience and perceptions of working adults as they move through the life cycle
  • young adults fresh out of university or in secure employment look to move into accommodation of their own
  • likely somewhere with a small amount of living space in an area where property prices are low in inner or urban parts of cities
  • not considered a negative factor as close to place of work in CBD and nightlife
  • perception of central urban areas may change when it comes to settling down as a family person
  • suburbs are perceived as better fulfilling needs (schools, green spaces, healthcare, shops)
  • not seen as dull and characterless anymore
  • now good salary and children have left home, perception places greater value on more attractive environment, bigger garden etc
  • commuter villages and towns are quieter and not so worried about commuter costs as close to retirement
49
Q

Accessible rural areas

A
  • slightly beyond the commuter belt
  • strong component of retired people who have either lived there for many years or retired away from urban areas
  • honeypot areas that attract urban day-trippers in the context of leisure and recreation
  • meeting the needs of visitors can generate jobs and income
  • some rural areas that are experiencing large rates of population growth have been expanding
  • some rural areas are protected from expansion by green-belt status, decreasing population growth but making it a popular place to live (wealthy 50+ people)
50
Q

varying perceptions of commuter villages based on age/life stage

A

Youth:
+ good school, plenty of friends
- parents preoccupied with work
Middle-aged adult:
+ pleasant location to live and bring up kids
- rising cost of housing
Elderly:
+ good access to social services
- increasing number of commuters, housing costs

51
Q

varying perceptions of day-tripper villages based on age/life stage

A

Youth:
+ casual work in leisure and tourism
- difficult to socialise with friends
Middle-aged adults:
+ good to visit for leisure and recreation
- limited employment opportunities
Elderly:
+ plenty of people around in the day
- too busy in honeypot locations

52
Q

varying perceptions of remote villages based on age/life stage

A

Youth:
+ good outdoor recreation
- little entertainment, too quiet, not ‘cool’
Middle-aged adults:
+ good holiday places
- poor communications, expensive accessibility
Elderly:
+ quiet and peaceful
- dwindling number of friends

53
Q

suburbanisation

A

the outward spread of the built-up area, often at lower densities compared with older part of town or city. Decentralisation of people and then employment is encouraged by transport improvements

54
Q

enclave

A

a group of people surrounded by a group or groups of entirely different people

55
Q

Impacts of immigration

A

Demographic:
- uneven spatial distribution
- higher population densities
- increased fertility rates
- changes in population structure
Economic:
- increased labour supply
- filling of low-paid jobs
- exploitation
- poverty and deprivation
Political
- shifts in government policy
- anti-immigration movements
- changes in voting patterns
Socio-cultural:
- increased minority ethnicity
- assimilation
- enrichment
- segregation
- discrimination
- housing stress
- disillusionment

56
Q

Internal factors leading to ethnic segregation in cities

A

Encouraging ethnic minorities to opt for segregation:
- providing mutual support via families, welfare and community organisations, religious centres, ethnic shops etc
- encouraging friendship and marriages within ethnic groups, or reducing contacts with the majority population that may undermine the culture of minority ethnic people
- providing protection against racist abuse and attacks from members of the majority population
- increasing political influence and power in the area
- allowing more opportunities to use minority language

57
Q

External factors leading to ethnic segregation in cities

A

Action taken by the majority population to encourage ethnic segregation:
- migration of the majority population out of the area that the minority population is moving into
- discrimination in the job market, ethnic minorities are more likely to be unemployed or on low incomes, forcing them into areas of cheap housing
- discrimination by house sellers, estate agents, financial institutions, private landlords and state housing agencies
- social hostility/unfriendliness from majority population
- racially motivated violence against minority ethnic people or fear of such violence

58
Q

factors that encourage immigrants to move out of their original settling location/enclave

A
  • improving earnings
  • feeling more confident and secure in the ‘new’ society
  • a wish to become more assimilated into the host society
59
Q

social/affordable housing

A

provides accommodation at affordable rents to people on low incomes. Affordable housing also includes dwellings built by housing associations for sale at below market price for first time buyers

60
Q

competition for space

A
  • competition between housing and other consumers of space (service, commerce, industry)
  • competition for housing space within residential areas
    Four housing sectors compete for space allocated or purchased for residential development:
  • owner-occupiers
  • property developers acquiring housing to rent to tenants
  • housing associations providing affordable housing
  • local authorities providing social housing
61
Q

Tensions in changing residential areas

A
  • created when there is a change in the use of a particular living space
    e.g. when residents are displaced by road improvements or independent shops are pressured to sell to retail chains
  • when migration begins to change the basic character of the residential population, tension is created between the long-term residents and the new incomers
  • widespread dislike of change or the feeling they are being pushed out of areas by the newcomers
62
Q

cultural and demographic issues requiring management

A

Ethnicity:
- assimilating minority ethnic people
- respecting immigrant cultures
- outlawing discrimination
- conserving cultural heritage
Population structure:
- anticipating a future change
- encouraging a youthful population
- coping with an ageing population
- raising life expectancy
Migration:
- reducing local vs newcomer tensions
- stemming unwanted outflows
- managing immigration
- improving border security
Quality of life:
- improving access to and quality of housing
- providing healthcare and education
- reducing poverty and deprivation
- improving the living environment

63
Q

Four groups of stakeholders

A
  • providers
  • users or beneficiaries
  • governance
  • influence
    Further divided into those exercising a positive or negative role and those that directly affect the management and those that are affected by the management
64
Q

During industrialisation urban places were perceived by some as dangerous and threatening

A

Victorian London:
- life expectancy was 37
- a lot of poverty led to high crime rates, mostly petty theft and prostitution
- many people lived in overcrowded slums and could not afford a doctor
- poor sanitation and frequent outbreaks of contagious diseases like cholera
- pollution from coal industries and raw sewage
- working conditions for manual workers were unhealthy and dangerous

65
Q

how does government policy contribute to different levels of cultural diversity

A
  • Windrush generation from West Indies from 1948 onwards to fill job vacancies in London that had been advertised overseas (many have stayed in same areas in London, contributing to culture e.g. Notting Hill Carnival in west London)
  • accessibility of key cities due to lack of car ownership in those days and job opportunities, transport links
  • EU migration and the expanding of the EU
66
Q

two different types of migrants coming into the UK

A

Skilled migrant workers:
- gain jobs in London’s knowledge economy
- skill shortages in the UK (e.g. IT) force companies to recruit overseas workers
- most tend to be white, highly qualified professionals from EU, USA, Australia, South Africa
Semi-skilled and unskilled migrant workers:
- take jobs not wanted by UK workers (e.g. refuse collection) or with unsocial hours (e.g. pizza delivery, childcare)
- many of London’s companies rely on these workers such as hotels, construction and restaurants
- many are from the EU, but some from Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and increasingly West Africa (Nigeria)

67
Q

why are rural landscapes perceived as idyllic

A
  • opposite of everything that’s bad about urban areas
  • friendly, quiet, safe
  • attractive natural surroundings reinforced by media, historical and cultural associations
  • e.g. Hardy’s Wessex, a partly real (Dorset), partly dream county created by Victorian novelist Thomas Hardy, giving detailed descriptions of idyllic country life
68
Q

Gentrification

A

A change in social status, where former working class inner-city areas are increasingly occupied and renewed by the middle classes
- creates tensions, drives out the original population as house prices rise
- fear that rural areas will be gentrified as urban people move in

A-level Geography (8 decks)

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