Disease And Immunology Flashcards

Question

Explain the concept of variable virulent and given an example of a disease that shows this

Answer 1

The flu has variable virulence as it constantly changing slightly and some strains are relatively mild while others are very virulent causing death

Answer 2

Influenza, tuberculosis and measles are passed through airborne or droplet infection which occurs when we Cough, sneeze talk breathe and millions of tiny droplets are expelled from system which in an infected person will contain pathogens which somewhere else can breathe into their body or lime on an open wound

Answer 3

Many sexually transmitted diseases spread this way such as impetigo, gonorrhoea, and syphilis

Answer 4

Diarrhoea, cholera salmonella hepatitis caused through ingestion of contaminated food or water transferring pathogens to the digestive system

Answer 5

A pathogen can get directly into the bloodstream to break in the skin, including hepatitis B aids rabies tetanus

Answer 6

Inanimate objects such as towels, bedding and toys can carry pathogens from one person to another such as staphylococcus infections

Answer 7

malaria, yellow fever, dengue, bilharzia or infectious diseases transmitted by a living creature which transmit the infection from one to another mostly insects although arthropods and mosquitoes carry malaria

Answer 8

Pathogenicity is the success of a pathogen the ability to survive as well as possible and therefore in human terms of the ability to cause disease

Answer 9

Neissera gonorrhoea cannot survive outside if it’s toast and That wants to be passed through sex Others have to be released in droplets Heminiths a large on this have attachments which connected to the epithelium of the urinary tract using a specialist fimbria

Answer 10

Bacterial capsules as a physical defence Mayo bacterium tuberculosis colonise host phagocytes to help their own life cycle Taxoplasma gondii how specialised by chemistry to avoid host reaction Influenza and Trypanosomes change their surface antibodies frequently African Trypanosomes and HIV/AIDS actually suppress the activity of the host immune system leave it open to other infections patients are often affect by other pathogens The toxins produced which are responsible symptoms

Answer 11

Elites defences are inherited mechanisms which are effective against foreign organisms and are constantly in place in the body and a part of a normal physiological function

Answer 12

The skin is a natural barrier, preventing entry of micro organisms with sebum which contains compounds which inhibit micro organisms other than natural skin flora which plays a role in preventing pathogenic organisms by out competing in a healthy body Although when the skin is cut this protection is removed and the body is vulnerable to infection with pathogen such as Staco herpes virus or clostridium tetani Also organisms like hookworms ticks biting insects and mosquitoes bypass this

Answer 13

The bodies mucosal membranes, including mouth throat genitals and nose produce secretion such as tears and mucus which help defend as they contain lysosomes and white blood cells known as phagocytic neutrophils which can ingest pathogens The mucus produced in the respiratory system as Cul swapped upwards and out or into the gut due to this. It’s difficult for pathogens to enter establish themselves and use in the areas near the outside world cold and influenza viruses are particularly effective with this.

Answer 14

Saliva in the mouth has bacteria cycle properties and acid in the stomach as well as natural flora in the compete successfully with any microbes that get past the stomach although skin does provide protection if it is badly damaged disease causing migraines to get directly into the bloodstream the clotting response of thrombosis occurs andneutrophils and macrophages destroy any microorganisms which have entered the bloodstream

Answer 15

The Six Types of White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) 1️⃣ Neutrophils – Phagocytic, first responders, fight bacteria, form pus. 2️⃣ Lymphocytes – B cells (antibodies), T cells (kill infected cells), long-term immunity. 3️⃣ Monocytes – Circulate in blood, differentiate into macrophages, engulf pathogens. 4️⃣ Eosinophils – Attack parasites, involved in allergies, release toxic proteins. 5️⃣ Basophils – Release histamine, trigger inflammation, involved in allergic reactions. 6️⃣ Macrophages – Mature monocytes, large phagocytes, remove pathogens & dead cells.

Answer 16

If pathogens get into the body the inflammation response brings an army a faggot site to the site to engulf and digest microorganisms. Symptoms of inflammation are. Redness and heat as a result of vasodilation Swelling from lymph squeezed into tissues Pain and loss of function through swelling

Answer 17

Neutrophils make up 70% and macrophages 4% Neutral rules are seen at the site of infection and sometimes seen as Puss There is also a large amount of white blood cells in the length which function to stop infection spreading

Answer 18

Interferons inhibit the replication of viruses inside cells by binding to receptors of uninfected cells and promoting a pathway which aids in infection resistance to viruses

Answer 19

Lymphoid organs include Bone marrow Thymus gland Spleen Lymph nodes Lymphoid tissue in the epithelium of the gut and airways

Answer 20

Opsonins or any chemical which increases the chance of a cell being recognise or destroyed by phagocytes Lymphocyte cells recognise foreign materials because they antigens do not match the immune cells recognise a foreign antigen and form proteins called antibodies which buy into the foreign antigen inactivating the pathogen which is then engulfed by phagocytes

Answer 21

Macrophages in Gulf antigens via the host deface breaks down the bacterium and its antigen and present antigens on a major historic compatibility complex MHC it is now an antigen presenting cell They are also agranular meaning they have no granules in their cytoplasm

Answer 22

Lymphocytes can be split into B cells which are made in the bone marrow and activated by the cells of the burn marrow liver and spleen and roam in the lymph glands or freely in the body. B cells have globular receptor proteins identical to immunogoblin which are the antibody IgM T cells are made in the bone marrow but mature in the thymus and can be split into T killer cells and T helper cells . T killer cells destroy a wide range of cells infected by viruses as well as destroyed tumours Tea helper cells helping the process which produces antibodies against antigens they are both involved in the cell mediated response and the antibody mediated response

Answer 23

Flashcard: Antibody-Mediated (Humoral) Immune Response 1️⃣ Pathogen Enters the Body • A bacterium or virus enters and starts multiplying. 2️⃣ Antigen Presentation • Macrophages or dendritic cells engulf the pathogen. • They display antigen fragments on MHC II proteins. • This signals Helper T cells (CD4+). 3️⃣ Helper T Cell Activation • The Helper T cell binds to the antigen-presenting cell. • It releases cytokines to activate B cells. 4️⃣ B Cell Activation • B cells bind directly to the pathogen’s antigen. • The activated Helper T cell (CD4+) further stimulates the B cell. • The B cell divides into Plasma Cells & Memory B Cells. 5️⃣ Antibody Production • Plasma cells produce specific antibodies against the pathogen. • Antibodies neutralize the pathogen or mark it for destruction by phagocytes. 6️⃣ Memory B Cell Formation • Some B cells become Memory B Cells. • These cells “remember” the pathogen for a faster response in future infections. ✅ Result: The infection is neutralized, and immunity is established!

Answer 24

They can clump together, preventing the spread of pathogen Disable pathogens ability to enter cells Are readily engulfed by phagocytes IGE antibodies can trigger the allergic reaction through basophils

Answer 25

The bacterium with the antigen on its surface binds to the matching receptor on the cell. The B cell becomes an antigen presenting cell. An active Tea cell which has a complementary receptor buying to the engine producing so causing the Tea helper to release cytokines that stimulate the B cell The B so either turns into B memory cells or cologne of the be effective cells which differentiate into plasma cells which produce antibodies at 2000/ second

Answer 26

The antibody mediated response is good at preventing an attack by many pathogens however if the foreign antigens are hidden within the cell such as viruses the cell mediated response becomes very important

Answer 27

When cells are infected with a virus, the antigens are displayed on a surface becoming in an infected antigen-presenting cell. These are targeted by Tea killer cells which have a range of complementary receptor proteins on their cell surface. These tea cells can also respond to cancers and changed surface antigens however once these cells are exposed to cytokines from tea helper cells they undergo rapid series of cell divisions to produce clones of identical T killer cells that combine two infected cells They release enzymes which make the pores appear in membranes of infected cells allowing water ions to move in and the cells to burst any pathogens released or labelled with antibodies by B effect cells and then destroyed Some are alone to tea, killer memory cells which remain in the bloodstream so your body can produce a rapid response

Answer 28

What are pathogen is encountered the first time the primary immune response is slow however the second time you have Tea and B memory cell left in your blood after first exposure which results in the pathogens being destroyed before they can cause symptoms A certain level of immunity is passed on from mother to child three placenta and breastmilk

Answer 29

Taking advantage of the bodies ability to create ideological memory a person is injected with a small amount of antigens or or dead pathogens which triggers the immune response Memory cells are formed and if the live version enters the body, the immune should have memory In the UK vaccinations are tetanus, polio, whooping, cough, measles mumps rubella and diphtheria

Answer 30

Heard immunity is the successful control of immunisation with big enough proportion of the population is vaccinated so it is difficult or impossible for a pathogen to spread the community It should protect tiny babies were very old as well as a immuno compromised and unvaccinated

Answer 31

Must cells produce histamines which cause local blood vessels to dilate and the permeability of cell membranes adjusted resulting in plasma to move out into the surrounding tissues causing them to swell. This is a defence mechanisms for allergens. Example examples are hayfever which affects nasal mucosa Asthma, bronchi, smooth muscle Itchy rash

Answer 32

Allergy to penicillin can produce a range of visible reactions from breathlessness oedema, rush and fatal circulatory collapse. This is termed anaphylaxis. If the reaction is widespread and swelling of the lining of the larynx causing airway obstruction, this is known as anaphylactic shock

Answer 33

Conditions at which the defect or function is present at birth the earlier the defect in development the more serious it’s likely to be Drugs like thalidomide cause defects in babies. This is referred to as Tetratogencity or drugs tenancy to cause physical defects in developing embryos Viruses can travel through the placenta and affect development of Em for example rubella is mild in children adults but can cause congenital heart disease cataracts deafness in developing embryos Cells undergoing rapid replication can also be susceptible to ionising radiation

Answer 34

This is one mutation in a single gene sufferers and mutation which may lead to the protein not being made properly which can lead to colour blindness cystic fibrosis hunting tins disease or even in the game, of a chromosome Down syndrome Some genetic disorders are sex such as Turner syndrome a genetic defect in women where there is only one X chromosome instead of two affected women are infertile Klinefelter syndrome genetic disorder whether of three sex chromosomes rather than two affected individuals are apparently male but are tall and thin with small testes and abnormal sperm production

Answer 35

Neoplasia refers to tumours and neoplasm being a tumour which can easily be classified as benign or malignant. Primary tumours are often benign and are handled by the immune system as they are non-aggressive and non-spreading. Malignant humours which represent a loss of control of cell division often cause cancer for example the bone marrow leukaemia which can be chronic developing over many years or acute developing in weeks or months developing solid masses tumours Tubers can spread locally secreting a substance which dissolves the network of fibrous molecules holding all together allowing cancer to invade or they break off the primary humour and spread throughout the body in the blood usually through the lymph

Answer 36

Benign tubers are well differentiated and still resemble the original cells. Malignant are poorly differentiated and do not. Benign usually have a capsule separating them from surrounding tissue malignant do not spread an infiltrate surrounding tissue Benign 10 to grow slowly, malignant rapid with many cells during an active mitosis Benign spread only by expansion whereas malignant spread locally but also cells can break off into the bloodstream and metastasise