Disease and bio technology

Question 1

Describe phagocytosis?

Answer 1

Characterised as internal non specific defence.
Phagocytes are cells that engulf and digest micro organisms and cell debris
Cells with phagocytes properties; monocytes-> macrophages ,
Neutrophillis ( most abnormal WBC) and dendritic cells.

Question 2

How do antibodies work?

Answer 2

Bind to surface of virus ( prevents entry)
Agglutination
Dissolve organisms
Inactivate foreign enzymes and toxins
Coating around virus-> more easily consumed
Insoluble, soluble-> insoluble

Question 3

Outline the differences in viruses and bactera

Answer 3

1. Bacteria is living organism whilst Virus is a non living and requires a host
2. Treated through antibodies prescribed by medical doctors whilst viruses must be treated with anitiviral drugs to reduce symptoms.
3. Viruses infect and attach onto hosts and release RNA/DNA and creates a new viral gene. ( slowly destroys cell) infects new host

Question 3

What are the external defenses of the body?

Answer 3

Mucus membrane, ear wax, skin, tears, hair+cilica, sweat,acids, lyzosome.

Question 4

What are the methods for transmissions ( BAD VIC)

Answer 4

Droplets-> COVID 19, ebola

Occurs when respiratory droplets carrying infectious agents are expelled from an infected person

Airborne-> ?? Unlike droplet transmission, airborne transmission involves smaller particles called aerosols that can remain suspended in the air for longer periods

Bodily fluids-> Herpititis a/b

Vectors-> malaria, bubonic plague

This involves the spread of infectious agents through vectors, such as mosquitoes, ticks, or fleas, which carry the pathogens from one host to another

Ingestion-> salmonella

Contact-> ?? This occurs when there is physical contact between an infected person and a susceptible person, allowing the transfer of pathogens

Question 5

Describe thge process of inflammation

Answer 5

1. Damage occurs into the skin, Mast cells releases histamine, heparin and other substances into the tissue fluid
2. histamine increases blood flow to the area ( vaso -constriction) and the permeability of vessels( more leakage) more fluid moves through capillary into surrounding tissues-> results in redness, heat and swelling
3. Heparin prevents clotting in the area ( clot forms which slows the pathogen from spreading faster)
4. Complement system proteins ( produced by liver and macrophages) and chemicals released by the mast cells attract phagocytes to the area-> phagocytosis engulf and kill microorganisms + remove cell debris
   5.Due to the abnormal conditions in the tissue- pain receptors are stimulated( hence pain is felt as as a sign)
   6.The full phagocytes begin to die-> Dead cells and tissue fluid form pus
   7.Repair of the area begins as mitosis bring about new cells.

Question 5

Outline the process Memory Cells.

Question 5

What are the 4 protective reflexes?

Answer 5

Sneezing, Vomitting, coughing, diarrhoea.

Question 6

Outline how a fever works and how long it lasts for

Answer 6

Fever lasts for 24 hours to 3 days.
Symptoms-> our body temperature is elevated, this is accompanied by a common cold/ infection

1.Macrophages respond to entry of pathogen, ingests pathogen
2.Chemicals called pyrogens released by WBC during response ( interleukin).Pyrogens cause a reset of the setpoint
3. Thermoreceptors detect person’s body temp and hypothalamus recognises that it sis lower then the setpoint.
4. Body Feels cold= shivering and vasoconstriction is skin BV’s occur
5.These homeostatic mechanisms increase heat production-> body temperature increases quickly
6. The fever “breaks” =the reset thermostat ( setpoint) to normal. Start experiencung vasodilation and sweating

Question 7

What are antigen presenting cells / main function?

Answer 7

can either often be macrophages, dendrite cells or undifferentiated B cells.

These cells detect non-self antigen, engulf it and when digesting the pathogen-> produces small fragments which move and are displayed in the surface of the cell.

Question 7

Define Antibody Mediated ( humoral) immune response and describe its process

Answer 7

1. Antigen presenting cells ( macrophages) recognise engulf and digest the pathogen, displaying the antigen on its surface.
2. APC reaches lymphoid tissue and present the antigen to the lymphocyte -> then sensitize
3. T cells are stimulated by APC, which release cytokine. The cytokine stimulate enlarge
   4.Specific B lymphocytes are stimulated to enlarge and undergo rapid cell division(mitosis)
4. Most B cells develop into plasma cells, which produces antibodies and release them into the blood and lymph
5. The antibodies combine with specific antigen to active and destroy it
6. Some of the new B Cells may turn into memory cells.

Question 7

Define Cell mediated Immune response (cellular immunity) and describe its proces

Answer 7

Provides protection to intracellular phases of infection ( once entered cells) Also fights cancer cells.

1. Antigen presenting cell rcognise, engulfs, digests and displays the antigen on its surface
2. Antigen presenting cell reaches lymphoid tissue and present the antigen to the lymphocyte
   3.Helper T cells are stimulated by antigen presentoing cells, which release cytokines.
3. Specific T lymphocytes are stimulated to enlarge and undergo rapid cell division ( mitosis)
   5.Most T cells develop into Killer T cells helper t cells or supressor t cells, migrate into the infection
4. Killer T cells destroys, whilst Helper T cells promote phagocytosis through macro phages
5. Suppresor T cells are only released when responses are to intesnse in which suppresor T cells release inhibiting substances slowing the immune response.
6. Some senstissed T cells form into memory cells.

Question 7

Define the vaccine and describe its purpose

Answer 7

the artificial introduction of antigens ( so body can produce more antibodies)

antigen preparation ( fragments of antigens) injected into the body in order to stimulate the immune response, without the person suffering from symptoms.

Question 7

outline the funciton of Memory cell

Answer 7

remembers the specific antigen so if exposed to the same antigen in the future, it provides a faster immune response+ more antibodies are made.

Question 7

Types of immunity

Answer 7

Passive/ active or natural/ artificial

Question 8

Types of antibiotics

Answer 8

bactericidal-> kills bacteria by changing the stucture of the cell membrane or by disrupting action of important enzymes.
bacteriostatic-> stops bacteria from reproducing ( disrupting protein synthesis)

Question 9

What are the ways antibodies work?

Answer 9

Binding of antibodies on surface which blocks entry
Aggultination
Dissolved organisms
Inactivating toxins and enzymes by combining them with otehr cells
Coating bacteria so they can be consumed more easily
Insoluble= soluble-> insoluble

Question 9

Why dont you vaccine a child straight away and why is there period time gaps for vaccinations

Answer 9

the antibodies in the body via placenta and breast milk may accidently eliminate the microorganisms provided from the antibodies.

Immune system hasnt been properly activated therefore if you give it too soon preventing the child from getting the disease

because antibodies of the first vaccination will eventually decline therefore more boosters are needed to stimulate the secondary response which creates more memory cells strengthening the immune system.

Question 10

Talk about the process of Recombinant Dna technology

Answer 10

Involves altering the genetic make up of an organism( add or change in existing DNA)-> creates a transgenic organism this is because DNA IS UNIVERSAL.
1. there is a target cell, isolates the gene and cut out using a restriction enzyme cuts DNA on either side of the genes, producing a fragment that includes the gene> producing sticks ends.
2.Isolate a plasmid from a bacterial. cell and cut it with the same type of restriction enzyme used in step one
3. splice the human DNA into the plasmid using DNA ligase enzymes to join the sticky ends
4.Using a vector then cloning the vector to make more copies of recombinant DNA
5.Inserted into Host cells to produce desired protein

Question 11

Outline the different process of AMI and CMI

Answer 11

AMI-> Release B bells , B lymphocytes
CMI->Releases T cells, T lymphocytes

Question 12

Name the 4 types of vaccines, descibe and give examples for each vaccine

Answer 12

Living attenuated -> reduced virulence, unable to cause disease ( Measles, mumps, rubella, polio and tuber)
Inactivated Micro-organisms-> contain dead organisms, killed by heat or chemicals (cholera, whopping cough, influenza and Hep A)
Toxoids -> IN activated bacterial toxins ( Diphturia or tetanus )
Sub- Unit-> Fragment of micro organisms (HPV, Hep-B)

Question 12

How do anti virals stop the development of virus’s

Answer 12

AZT for HIV and Taniflu for influenze

Antivirals only inhibits the development of Virus doesn’t kill
Main purpose is to target various life stages of the virus
1.Prevents the release of virus from host cells
2. Block entry of viral Rna/ Dna into hose cell
3.interfere with reverse transcription ezyme needed to transcibe viral RNA into DNA

Question 13

What is a restriction enzyme?what is its other name and why?

Answer 13

enzymes that cut strands of specific known sequences of nucleotides also known as endonuclease or molecular scissors

Question 14

Describe and name the two different cuts and why its useful.

Answer 14

straight cut-> creates a clean bleak cut between two strands of Dna to produce a blunt end where both strands terminate in a base pair.

Staggered cut-> produces stick ends with fragments, where there stretch of unpaired nucleotides that overhang. Stick ends have the abiltiy to combine with complementary base sections
Staggered cuts are useful because they allow stranded overhang from one DNA strand to pair with any piece of Dna that has corresponding sequence. ( could be same or different organism)

Question 14

What is a plasmid and why?

Answer 14

a smaller, double circular units of cytoplasmic DNA that have the ability to replicate in the cell independently of chrosomal DNA
Target Gene+ plasmid= recombinant dna

Question 14

Why do you have the use the same restriction enzyme used in step 1

Answer 14

they cut at specified sequences and generate fragments with identical complementary sticky ends, which enable bonds to form between them.

Question 15

descrube the vector in recombinant technology

Question 16

Describe mono cytes and macrophages and purpose

Answer 16

when tissue is infected or inflamed, monocytes leave the blood stream and enter the tissue -> in the tissue they differentiate into macrophages, leave phagocytic cells.

Large phagocytic cells move through tissue to destroy pathogens . Macrophages are importantin removing microbes and dying cells through the phagocytosis.

Question 17

Describe neutrophilis( most abundant WBC)

Answer 17

Described as granulated leucocyte, characterised by their lobulated nucleus

Neutrophilis is the more common leucocytes.
First cell to move into tissue to destroy pathogens( short life span)( makes up the pus)

Question 18

Describe Gene therapy and examples

Answer 18

Trea/cure genetic abnormalities by identifying faulty genes and replacing them with healthy ones. (Single gene disesase) Cystic fibrosis, huntington, sickle. Muscular dystrophy.

Question 19

Describe dendritic cells

Answer 19

are characterised by projections from the cytoplasm.
They have the ability to detect, engulf and process foreign particles. They use the detected information about the digested particles to assist with immunity,

Question 19

Describe cell replacement therapy examples

Answer 19

uses stem cells to replace a faulty tissue cell for example neurodegenerative diseases like alzheimers and parkinsons

Question 20

Describe tissue engineering, purpose, requirements, and the benefits?

Answer 20

Cells need to be induced to grow on a scaffold of natural or synthetic material to produce healthy tissue.

Purpose= serves as a template for tissue growth to allow difusion of nutrients through out whole structure

Requirements= need to have high pore sizes that enables cells to grow-> rate of scaffod breaks down need to be= rate of tissue formation, stem cells need to be cultured.

Question 21

Factors to consider ( vaccines)

Answer 21

Health factors-> Allergic reactions, Preservatives
Social Factors-> Ethical concerns, distrubitions/ lack of resources
Cultural Factors -> Religious beliefs
Economic Factors -> Cost to visit doctor ( third world country)

Question 22

Describe herd immunity and its purpose and examples

Answer 22

Relies on huge population being immune to diseaese to protect the overall population.
PURPOSE-> large number of immune individuals decreases the chance of disease being transmitted.

For Example-> Measles requires a high percentage of population to be vaccinated
2. Ebola requires a lower percentage of population being vaccined.

Question 23

Antibiotic Resistance

Answer 23

Multiple drug resistant ( super bugs) are resistant to most antibiotics.

kTotal drug resistant-> resistant to all known drugs-> must develop new antibiotics to over come resistance.

Question 24

What is an antigen

Answer 24

a substance capable of triggering an immune response

Question 25

What is an antibody

Answer 25

a protein ( immunoglobin) produced in response to a specifric antigen

Question 26

Type 1-> Diabetes Mellitus

Answer 26

Insulin dependent diabetes

Time-> Early on set in childhood usually

causes-> A fault in the immune system destroys beta cells in the pancreas, which are responsible from producing insulin => no insulin produced

Symptoms-> thirsty, excessive hunger, Lethargy, diziness, headache, blurred vision.

Detection-> Antibodies in beta cells can be detected in blood tests

Treatments-> Insulin injections ( cannot be in tablet form because it may be absorbed in the alimentary canal).

Long term effects-> There is an increased risk of kidney failure, heart attacks, stroke, amputations, blindness and nerve damage

Question 26

Excessive Activities

Answer 26

the compulsion to exercise for long periods of time everyday.
Common eating diseases-> anorexia and bulimia

IMPACT-> may cause muscle reduction due to excessive energy being used, physical damage to tendons, ligaments, joints, muscles, bones.

Question 27

Diabetes Insipidus

Answer 27

• In this form of diabetes, sufferers don’t produce enough antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
• ADH plays an important role in fluid reabsorption in the nephron of the kidneys.
• Lack of ADH = Less reabsorption of water = More urine production
• Diagnosis = blood tests assessing ADH levels in the blood
• Treatment = low salt diet, synthetic ADH replacement and fluid management.

Question 27

Hyperthyroidism

Answer 27

Graves disease
CAUSES-> Antibodies stimulate the thyroid to release too much thyroxine.

hypothalamus could over secreting too much TSH releasing factors, The Tsh Factors travel through the blood stream reaching the anterior pituitary gland which releases TSH targeting the thryoid gland which releases too much thyroxine-> increase metabolic rate = increased heat production leading to discomfort due to temperature.

Excess iodine
Inflammation of thyroid can cause T3 and T4 to leak out of the thyroid
SYMPTOMS-> Rapid Heart beat, Rapid weight loss, Increased appetite, sweating, anxiety, protruding eyeballs.
Diagnosis->
Cholesterol test - low levels indicating high metabolic rate
Trygliceride test - low levels indicating high metabolic rate
TSH level analysis - blood test
Tyhroid scan- ultrasound, CT, MRI
TREATMENTS->Medication reducing the release of thyroxine, surgery to remove part of the thyroid gland, drinking radioactive iodine which kills thyroid cells, anti-inflammatory medication

Question 28

Non medicinal Drugs

Answer 28

disrupts regular homeostasis For example Alcohol, ecstasy, THC and nicotine
IMPACTS-> Speed up transmission of nerve impulse or slow down nerve impulse

Question 28

Hypothyroidism

Answer 28

Hashimoto disease( attack of the thyroid by the immune system)
Thyroid releases to little thyroxine or incorrect treatment of hyperthryoidism
SYMPTOMS-> inflammed thyroid may form( Goitre), slow heart rate, unexplained weight gain, fatigue, swelling to face, intolerance to cold
DIAGNOSIS->TSH level analysis - blood test
Thyroid scan - ultrasound, CT, MRI
TREATMENT-> Consume more iodine (iodised table salt), synthetic thyroxine tablets

Question 29

eating habits deficiencies

Answer 29

inadequete amount of neccasary vitamins and minerals is consumed.
COMMON DEFICINCES
* Lack of iodine - leading to lack of thyroxine by the thyroid
* Lack of iron - leading to reduction in haemoglobin. This condition is called anaemia.
* Lack of B12 - peenicious anaemia.

Question 30

Diseases causing disruptions

Answer 30

Diseases which impact homeostasis.

• Emphysema - lung disease which results in reduced surface area of the alveoli. Limiting gas exchange (oxygen availability reduced).
• Fever - Extreme elevation in body temperature (symptom of disease) which reduced the normal reactions occurring in the body.
  Hypertension - High blood pressure for extended periods of time

Question 31

Injury Causing disruptions

Answer 31

Injuries may also impact normal homeostasis as the organ is damaged and may not perform regularly

• Excessive blood loss
• Punctured or collapsed lungs
• Inflammation
• Trauma to the brain - concussion
• Spinal injuries
• Nerve damage

Question 32

type 2 diabetes

Answer 32

Non - insulin dependent diabetes

Usually occurs at an adult stage however may be attained at a young age
Causes-> beta cells produce insulin by body however cells does not respond
Symptoms-> Excessive (constant) thirst, excessive hunger, frequent urination (containing glucose), lethargy, feeling hungry, wounds healing slowly, blurred vision, headaches, dizziness, leg cramps
Diagnosis-> Fasting blood tests often show high blood glucose levels
Treatment-> Management methods: careful diet (manage glucose level), regular physical activity, maintaining a healthy body weight
Long term effects-> There is an increased risk of kidney failure, heart attacks, stroke, amputations, blindness and nerve damage

Question 33

Differences of cell mediate and anti body mediated

Answer 33

Question 34

Why cant antivirals be used for bacteria vise versa for antibiotics and viruses?

Answer 34

Antibiotics works on the cell structure during protein synthesis. Viruses don’t have a cell structure so antibiotics dont work on virus. Thus antibiotics cannot distinguish normal body cells from infected cells.