Discuss how a sense of subjective well-being might affect cognition and behavior. Describe the brain mechanisms that may support these changes (B -2016)

Question 1

How would you structure an essay on well-being?

Answer 1

1. Structure
2. Define what we mean by SWB
3. Introduce 4 constituents of wellbeing and examine how they might affect cognition and behaviour and examine the brain mechanisms that might support these changes
4. Conclusion

Question 2

What are the 4 constituents of well-being?

Answer 2

1. Sustained positive emotion
2. Robust recovery following negative events (Resilience)
3. Empathy, altruism, and well-being
4. mind wandering, mindfulness and affective stickiness

Question 3

Western research on wellbeing broadly follows two philosophical perspectives from Ancient Greece - what are they? Who first described the?

Answer 3

Hedonia first described by Aristippus of Cyrene, and Eudaimonia first described by Aristotle

(Ryan and Deci, 2001)

Question 4

Of what is hedonia comprised?

Answer 4

Pleasure, gratification, or momentary well-being

Question 5

Of what is eudaimonia comprised?

Answer 5

meaningful engagement and the fulfilment of potential

Question 6

Originally, the term ‘subjective well-being’ was chosen by Diener (1984) to….; whil ‘psychological well-being’ was the term chosen by Carol Ryff (1989) to operationalise…

Answer 6

hedonic well-being in his Tripartite Model of Subjective Well-Being

Eudaimonic well-being

Question 7

Originally, the term ‘subjective well-being’ was chosen by Diener (1984) to operationalize hedonic well-being in his Tripartite Model of Subjective Well-Being; while ‘psychological well-being’ was the term chosen by Carol Ryff (1989) to operationalize eudaimonic well-being. However, … [include citations!]

Answer 7

more recent models (e.g., Keyes, 2002; Seligman, 2011) and research (e.g., Davidson & Schuyler, 2015) tend to combine the two perspectives (hedonic and eudaimonic) into a more general formulation of well-being

Question 8

Who has conducted more recent research combing the hedonic and eudaimonic perspective?

Answer 8

Davidson and Schuyler, 2015

Question 9

Who has created models combining the hedonic and eudaimonic philosophies?

Answer 9

Keyes, 2002

Seligman, 2011

Question 10

However, more recent models (e.g., Keyes, 2002; Seligman, 2011) and research (e.g., Davidson & Schuyler, 2015) tend to combine the two perspectives (hedonic and eudaimonic) into a more general formulation of well-being – considering this trend in the research seems to hold for much of the research on the brain mechanisms underlying well-being (see. Davidson & Schuyler, 2015), …

Answer 10

, in this essay we too will combine the two in our conceptualization of well-being.

Question 11

in this essay we too will combine the two in our conceptualization of well-being. As such, well-being can be defined as… and is comprised of… [citation!]

Answer 11

well-being can be defined as feeling good and functioning effectively (Huppert, 2005, 2011)

1. sustained positive emotion;
2. recovery from negative emotion;
3. prosocial behavior and
4. generosity; and mind-wandering, mindfulness and “affective stickiness” or emotion-captured attention (Davidson & Schuyler, 2015)

Question 12

We are now going to examine each of these four constituents of well-being, and how they might affect X and Y.

Answer 12

cognition

behavior

Question 13

Sustained Positive Emotion

In a recent study involving a large community sample derived from the MIDUS study, Davidson and Schuyler (2015) experimentally examined what?

Answer 13

relations between individual differences in sustained activation in the ventral striatum and well-being

Question 14

With what is the ventral striatum associated? Says who?

Answer 14

It is an area associated with positive emotion

Heller et al., 2009

Question 15

In their experiment, Davidson and Schuyler (2015)used a large community sample derived from what?

Answer 15

the MIDUS study

Question 16

In their study examining the relationship between individual differences in sustained activation in the ventral striatum and well-being, what did Davidson and Schuyler (2015) find?
4 points

Answer 16

That individuals with higher levels of sustained activation across trials in the ventral striatum in response to positive pictures reported higher levels of psychological well-being on Ryff’s (1989) composite measure of well-being.

Further, they found a similar pattern in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region often involved in working memory and attention, but also active when a person is regulating his or her emotion

as well as at the relationship between activity in these brain regions and an individual’s cortisol output over the course of the day

Participants with greater sustained activation in both the ventral striatum and the dorsolateral prefrontal region had lower levels of cortisol output, which suggests less activation of the body’s stress response

Question 17

In their study, Davidson and Schuyler (2015) found that individuals with higher levels of sustained activation across trials in the ventral striatum in response to positive pictures reported higher levels of psychological well-being on Ryff’s (1989) composite measure of well-being. Further, they found a similar pattern in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region often involved in working memory and attention, but also active when a person is regulating his or her emotion; as well as at the relationship between activity in these brain regions and an individual’s cortisol output over the course of the day. Participants with greater sustained activation in both the ventral striatum and the dorsolateral prefrontal region had lower levels of cortisol output, which suggests less activation of the body’s stress response.

What did the authors argue their findings indicated?

Answer 17

The authors argued that their findings indicate that activation across time in response to positive incentives in the ventral striatum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex predicts well-being; a form of sustained happiness that may not depend directly upon external circumstances.

This is arguably a feedback loop with greater levels of well-being then leading to an increase in sustained positive emotion (in the form of sustained activation of the ventral striatum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex)

Question 18

Davidson and Schuyler (2015) argued that their findings indicate that activation across time in response to positive incentives in the ventral striatum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex predicts well-being; a form of sustained happiness that may not depend directly upon external circumstances. This is arguably what?

Answer 18

a feedback loop with greater levels of well-being then leading to an increase in sustained positive emotion (in the form of sustained activation of the ventral striatum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex)

Question 19

Robust Recovery Following Negative Events (Resilience)

Arguably a key constituent of high levels of resilience is what?

Answer 19

high levels of well-being

Question 20

Arguably a key constituent of high levels of resilience is high levels of well-being; indeed, the …

Answer 20

maintenance of high levels of well-being in the face of adversity seems to be a common theme among the differing definitions.

Question 21

What seems to be a common theme among the differing definitions of resilience?

Answer 21

the maintenance of high levels of well-being in the face of adversity

Question 22

One key way in which high levels of well-being being can be sustained in the face of adversity is what?

Answer 22

through effective recovery from negative events

Question 23

One key way in which high levels of well-being being can be sustained in the face of adversity is through effective recovery from negative events (here we are conceptualizing recovery as what?)

Answer 23

as automatic in the sense that it does not require effortful control; rather there are large individual differences in the naturally occurring rate at which we recover from negative events

Question 24

Who conducted a study looking at whether recovery following negative events is connected with well-being?

Answer 24

Schaefer et al (2013)

Question 25

What did Schaefer et al explore in their 2013 study?

Answer 25

Whether recovery following negative events is connected with well-being

Question 26

Describe the sample in Schaefer’s et als (2013) study looking at whether recovery following negative events is connected with well-being?

Answer 26

331 participants from the MIDUS study between the ages of 34-84 years old/

Question 27

How did Schaefer et al (2013) test their hypothesis?

Answer 27

Using an automatic emotion regulation task, the authors examined emotion-modulated startle at different latencies during and following emotional picture presentation.

Question 28

Using an automatic emotion regulation task, Schaefer et al (2013) examined emotion-modulated startle at different latencies during and following emotional picture presentation - what did they find? What idea did these findings support?

Answer 28

That participants with higher scores on the Purpose in Life subscale of Ryff’s psychological well-being measure exhibited the most robust recovery following negative events.

These findings support the idea that high levels of well-being positively affect resilience.

Question 29

What did Russo et al (2012) do?

Answer 29

They reviewed the growing literature in non-human animals that is focused on the brain mechanisms underlying resilience.

Question 30

How did Russo et al (2012) operationalise resilience?

Answer 30

For the purpose of Russo et al’s (2012) studies, resilience is operationalized as not succumbing to the deleterious effects of stress-inducing manipulations

Question 31

Russo et al (2012) reviewed the growing literature in non-human animals that is focused on the brain mechanisms underlying resilience. For the purposes of these studies, resilience is operationalized as not succumbing to the deleterious effects of stress-inducing manipulations. In mice exposed to predators or chronic defeat stressors, those exhibiting a resilient behavioral profile …

Answer 31

showed higher levels of early gene expression in glutamatergic neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex

Activation in this brain region has been interpreted as pro-resilience adaptation.

Question 32

Activation in this brain region has been interpreted as pro-resilience adaptation.

Answer 32

medial prefrontal cortex

Question 33

What is a region commonly involved in the regulation of emotion in humans?

Answer 33

medial prefrontal cortex

Question 34

What did Katz et al (2009) find in squirrel monkeys?

Answer 34

that exposure to intermittent maternal separation increases cortical volume in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, a pattern that is opposite to what is observed in depression.

Question 35

What has intermittent maternal separation been shown to do?

Answer 35

promote resilience

Question 36

In squirrel monkeys, Katz et al (2009) found that exposure to intermittent maternal separation increases cortical volume in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, a pattern that is opposite to what is observed in depression. These and other related findings are consistent with human data in suggesting…

Answer 36

an important role for prefrontal regulatory regions in the promotion of resilience, and they further underscore the role of these circuits in well-being.

Question 37

Empathy, Altruism, and Well-Being

One of the strongest predictors of well-being is ….

Answer 37

the quality of an individual’s social relationships

Question 38

One of the strongest predictors of well-being is the quality of an individual’s social relationships. In fact, when individuals are made to experience social isolation many of the same brain regions become active that are active in ….

Answer 38

the experience of physical pain.

Question 39

Name two types of behavior that increase social bonds?

Answer 39

Altruism

Prosocial behavior

Question 40

Behavior that increases social bonds (altruism and pro-social behavior) reliably increases what? And?

Answer 40

well-being in children and adults, and appears to be consistent across cultures.

Question 41

Behavior that increases social bonds (altruism and pro-social behavior) reliably increases well-being in children and adults, and appears to be consistent across cultures. In fact, individuals asked to …

Answer 41

recall a purchase they made for another person were happier immediately following the memory, and were subsequently more likely to spend money on another person.

Question 42

individuals asked to recall a purchase they made for another person were happier immediately following the memory, and were subsequently more likely to spend money on another person. This type of behavior could result in what? Says who?

Answer 42

a feedback loop, where pro-social behavior increases well-being, which then results in more pro-social behavior (Aknin et al., 2011).

Question 43

Pro-social behavior is even associated with X (REF) and Y (REF), and these improved health outcomes in turn can also contribute to greater well-being

Answer 43

better health (Borgonovi, 2008)

Longer life expectancy (Brown et al. 2003)

Question 44

Mind Wandering, Mindfulness and Affective Stickiness

In a well-known study, Who developed a smartphone app to sample the experience of more than 2,000 individuals (mean age = 34 years) while they went about their daily activities?

Answer 44

Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010)

Question 45

What did Killingsworth a Gilbert do (2010) do?

Answer 45

They developed a smartphone app to sample the experience of more than 2,000 individuals (mean age = 34 years) while they went about their daily activities

Question 46

In a well-known study, Killingsworth and Gilbert developed a smartphone app to sample the experience of more than 2,000 individuals (mean age = 34 years) while they went about their daily activities. What were they interested in?

Answer 46

They were interested in the frequency with which people reported their minds to be wandering.

At the same time, they also asked the participants to rate the degree to which they were happy or unhappy at that moment.

Question 47

Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010) were interested in the frequency with which people reported their minds to be wandering, and the mood they were in when this occured - what did they find?

Answer 47

They found that on average, these participants reported their minds to be wander 47% of the time

Moreover, when they reported their minds to be wandering, they also reported significantly more unhappiness than when they were focused on the activity at hand

Question 48

Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010) found that on average, these participants reported their minds to be wander 47% of the time. Moreover, when they reported their minds to be wandering, they also reported significantly more unhappiness than when they were focused on the activity at hand. What did they conclude?

Answer 48

That it is possible that a low sense of well-being might increase the likelihood of mind-wandering occuring, or that mind-wandering might decrease well-being.

Question 49

Neuroscientists have begun to discover specific characteristics of the brain’s function at rest, when no formal task or instruction is given and the mind is allowed to wander. When fMRI data is collected from participants at rest - what happens?

Answer 49

A very reliable network of brain regions becomes active.

Question 50

When fMRI data is collected from participants at rest, a very reliable network of brain regions becomes active. Because these regions are active specifically in the absence of a task, we refer to them as what?

Answer 50

the dorsal mode network

Question 51

What did Mason et al (2007) find?

Answer 51

that increased activity in several areas of the default mode (including the medial prefrontal cortex and the posterior cingulate) was related to an increased frequency of mind wandering reports.

Question 52

Who found that increased activity in several areas of the default mode (including the medial prefrontal cortex and the posterior cingulate) was related to an increased frequency of mind wandering reports?

Answer 52

Mason et al (2007)

Question 53

Mindfulness is often defined as what? Says who?

Answer 53

the purposeful paying attention, non-judgmentally to the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1982).

Question 54

Mindfulness, when cultivated through training, is said to promote what?

Answer 54

Increased well-being

Question 55

Mindfulness, when cultivated through training, is said to promote increased well-being; it is also possible that …

Answer 55

people will high levels of well-being are generally more mindful

Question 56

Recent evidence suggests that mindfulness meditation training results in …

Answer 56

a decrease in activation of the same regions of the default mode that are increased in activation during mind wandering

Question 57

Recent evidence suggests that mindfulness meditation training results in a decrease of activation in the same regions of the default mode that are increased in activation during mind wandering; this suggests what?

Answer 57

that changes in default mode network activity (specifically the areas associated with mind wandering) might support changes in well-being.

Question 58

Mindfulness is also said to be associated with decreased attachment, reflected in part by what?

Answer 58

a decreased influence of wanting

Question 59

Mindfulness is also said to be associated with decreased attachment, reflected in part by a decreased influence of wanting, which may partly underlie the association between …

Answer 59

mindfulness and well-being

Question 60

Wanting, defined as …, can be irrationally inconsistent with cogntive goals, and lead to…

Answer 60

an incentive to approach

decreases in well-being

Question 61

What did Levinson et al (2012) do?

Answer 61

They recently examined the relation between individual differences in this behavioural measure of mindfulness and a behavioural measure of reward related attention capture, a proxy for emotional distraction.

Question 62

Who recently examined the relation between individual differences in this behavioural measure of mindfulness and a behavioural measure of reward related attention capture, a proxy for emotional distraction?

Answer 62

Levinson et al (2012)

Question 63

In examining the relationship between individual differences in this behavioural measure of mindfulness and a behavioural measure of reward related attention capture, a proxy for emotional distraction - what did Levinson et al (2012) do?

Answer 63

The authors used a task based on Anderson et al (2011) that assessed how much individuals are slowed by attending to a distractor formerly paired with reward, despite their cognitive goal of completing a visual search as quickly as possible

Question 64

What did Levinson et al (2012) find?

Answer 64

that participants with greater breath counting accuracy showed less attention capture, indicating less ‘stickiness’

Question 65

What is attentional stickiness?

Answer 65

involuntarily being attentionally pulled by irrelevant emotional distractors.

Question 66

What can be concluded from Levinson et al (2012)?

Answer 66

Strengthening attentional skills through mindfulness or similar types of training may decrease stickiness and mind wandering and increase well-being by transforming default mode activity.

Additionally high levels of well-being may be associated with high attentional skills.

Question 67

To conclude…

Answer 67

this essay discussed how a sense of subjective well-being might affect four aspects of cognition/behavior: sustained positive emotion; recovery from negative emotion; empathy, altruism and pro-social behavior; mind-wandering, mindfulness and affective ‘stickiness’ or emotion captured attention. The brain mechanisms that may support these changes were also discussed.