Discourse analysis Flashcards
What do formalists focus on? What is the formalist analysis like?
Focus on how different units function in relation to each other without any regard to the context in which they occur.
The analysis of discourse at several levels in terms of different units, categories and relations (i.e. morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence)
What do functionalists focus on? What is the analysis like?
Focus on how patterns of language are put to use for certain purposes in particular contexts and how they result from the application of communicative strategies.
The analysis of linguistic forms is interdependent with social life.
What are the issues with the formalist approach to discourse analysis?
1) Units in which people speak do not always qualify as sentences
You can run a hou- whatcha- now whatcha you can- ran a house- you can run a house a- and do the job, which is important, y’ can’t y- a man can’t do it himself, and a woman can’t do it himself w- if y’ want it to be successful. In most cases
2) Grammatically correct sentences may sometimes be meaningless
Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (grammatically OK; meaningless)
* Furiously sleep ideas green colourless (grammatically wrong; meaningless)
Revolutionary new ideas appear infrequently (grammatically OK; meaningful)
* Infrequently appear ideas new revolutionary (grammatically wrong; meaningless)
3) Form and function do not always overlap
Are you free for lunch today?
You are free for lunch today?
Free for lunch today?
Lunch today?
What is the fundamental distinction between the formalist and functionalist view?
The importance on grammatical form vs. discourse function. However, grammatical form and discourse function do not have to clash with each other, they can complement each other.
How is language a product and process.
It is a product because it is an output which can be recorded and studied; it’s a process because there is a continuum of semantic choices
What is context of situation?
It is shown in text, through a semantic relationship between the social event and the functional organization of language.
When is a text a media of communication?
A text is a media of communication when it fulfils the 7 criteria of textuality- cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality.
Cohesion is…
It is the surface of a text; realized by surface links, which are grammatical features (pronouns, recurring phrases,…). This is a guide for understanding texts and a guide to coherence. Cohesion can be made difficult by ambiguity; understanding the same words differently in different contexts of situation.
Example:
If you’d like to give someone a phone for Christmas, there are plenty to choose from.
Coherence is…
coherence interprets surface (cohesive) links and makes sense of them. It is created by the reader and depends on their experience and knowledge of the world. They must firstly understand the situation and then interpret it.
Example:
Claire loves potatoes. She was born in Ireland.
Cohesion:
Clare/she
Coherence:
Stereotypical ethnic association: Irish love potatoes
Intentionality is….
is the intention of the speaker to produce a cohesive and coherent text, simultaneously transferring their ideas and thus achieving a communicative goal. Of course, the listener has to have some tolerance for the speaker, because of difficult circumstances that occur: spontaneous speech, ambiguity, grammatical uncertainty, intentional lack of cohesion and coherence….however, the listener may not accept the intended coherence.
Example:
“The distance between the vehicles in front of me was quite big. it might have been. 30 meters, because I already. because it was already dark.
–> is not cohesive, but intention is accepted
Acceptability is…
(receiver oriented) is the listener’s readiness to interpret a text a cohesive and coherent, willingness to participate in a discourse and reach its goal, their ability to detect and understand what the participants’ goals are based on what they say, and the speaker’s ability to acknowledge the listener’s response as helpful or contrary to the plan of achieving the goal of a discourse. If you do not accept the text, that violates the principle of cooperation; textuality can be impaired.
Informativity….
is the amount of and relationship between things that are informative and things that are redundant. Information theory is based primarily on the notion of statistical probability → the more possible alternatives there are, the higher the information value. However, this statistical probability can only be applied to non-natural texts (no spontaneous conversations and discourse, which is ignored). We process ordinary sentences more easily, and non-ordinary sentences with more difficulty.
There are three levels of informativity:
a) First order: trivial words, receive slight attention, usually function words.
b) Second order- normal standard for textual communication. Ordinary, frequent words.
c) Third order abnormal, infrequent words and patterns, require more attention and processing, problem solving from the receiver. If the receiver successfully familiarizes themselves with them, they are downgraded to the 2nd order.
What is downgrading?
Downgrading is when a text moves in upwards or backwards on the levels of informativity. Example:
Example: reception of an enormous sum of money
Backward downgrading: think of past activities/actions (what did I do to get this money)
Forward downgrading: wait for an explanation
Outward downgrading: mistake – money intended for someone else (explanation)
What are planboxes?
Plans frequently used in goal negotiation. They have to be appropriate for the situation and can escalate. Planbox escalation is a normal response to continued failure.
It goes from:
asking, invoking, informing, bargaining, threatening, overpowering and stealing. The goal is the minimum effort for maximum effect.
Example:
John wanted Bill’s bicycle. He walked over to Bill and asked him if he would give it to him. Bill refused. Then John told Bill he would give him five dollars for it, but Bill would not agree. John told Bill he would break his arm if he didn’t let him have it. Bill let John have the bicycle.
Intertextuality….
links the text to previous familiar texts. Understanding a text according to the understanding of one or more previously encountered texts. Some texts are in continuous consultation with previous texts: parodies, critical reviews, rebuttals, reports, –>they refer to certain texts all the time.
Example:
Got apples?
What are semiotics?
It is the study of signs systems.
What is context of situation according to Malinowski?
Is the total environment, including verbal and situational environment of a communicative act.
What is the framework of the context of a situation according to Firth?
He puts importance on the cultural background of language. The framework:
- The participants in the situation: status and roles of the participants
- The actions of the participants (what they’re doing, verbal and non-verbal)
- Other relevant features of the situation (surrounding objects and events)
- The effects of the verbal actions (how the participants change the situation by what they say)
Field of discourse is…
a concept developed by Halliday that interprets the context of situation. The field refers to what the content of the communicative act is, the nature of social action, what it is that the participants are engaged in. Its linguistic features are shown through the metaphorical use of vocabulary and is expressed through the experiential function in semantics.
Example:
A recipe
Field: food and food preparation
Tenor of discourse is….
a concept developed by Halliday that interprets the context of situation. It focuses on who is taking part, the nature of the participants and their statuses and roles and the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue.
Its linguistic features are grammatically realised through person and speech function (request, offer). It is expressed through the interpersonal function in semantics.
Example:
Mother daughter fight
Tenor: parental figure to child, personal relationship
What is experiential meaning?
Is a function of language, linguistic function. It is the meaning of a sentence or text that is the expression of a process, event, action or state of a real world. It can be defined as representing patterns of experience.
What is interpersonal meaning?
It is a linguistic function that deals with the process of social interaction. A sentence as an interaction between the speaker and the listener.
Example:
You there, bring me wine!
What is logical meaning?
It is a linguistic function that deals with the relation between grammatical parts of a text; coordination/subordination; conjuncts, conjunctions, …
What is textual meaning?
- Textual meaning: linking the text in question with the preceding text. (theme, information, cohesive relations
What is reference?
Is a two-way relationship between contextual configuration (field, tenor, mode and text structure). There are three types of reference:
Personal reference: personal and possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives
Demonstrative reference: expresses different degrees of proximity in time and space. Realised by: demonstrative adverbs (here, there, now, then), demonstrative pronouns and the definite article.
Comparative reference: degrees of similarity or difference. Realised by: adjectives and adverbs.
Give an example of an endophoric and an exophoric reference.
An endophoric reference is either anaphoric (Sheila I great, I love her) or cataphoric (She’s named Sheila) or exophoric when the source lies outside of the text. (Everybody loves New York).
What is ellipsis?
Omission of elements normally required by grammar, but are obvious from the context. The structure has some missing elements, which can be retrieved from co-text or context. Can be either endophoric or exophoric.
The children will carry the small boxes, the adults the large ones (endophoric)
You label and I’ll stack. (exophoric)
There are three types:
- Nominal Nelly liked the green tiles; myself I preferred the blue.
- Verbal A: Will anyone be waiting?- B: Jim will, I should think.
- Clausal He said he would take early retirement as soon as he could and he has.
What is a conjunction?
It presupposes textual sequence and signals a relationship between segments of discourse. The conjunctive role can be a single word (consequently), phrasal (as a consequence) or clausal. Certain conjunctions are used more frequently and may have different meanings:
- He fell in the river and down the stairs- additive
- He fell in the river and caught a chill- causal
- I got up and made my breakfast - temporal
- I’ve lived here ten years and I’ve never heard of that pub - adversative (but could substitute)
Reiteration is achieved by…
Substitution is achieved by…
restating an item by direct repetition, explaining it in different words and reasserting its meaning by different lexical relations.
Example:
The meeting commenced at six thirty, but from the moment it began it was clear it was not well. This can be achieved by:
synonymy, antonymy;
hyponyms/hypernyms;
substitution is achieved by the replacement of one item with another. Substitution is a relation in wording rather than meaning. Substitution is the relation between linguistic items, such as words or phrases and can be either nominal; verbal or clausal.
Lexical cohesion is achieved by…
By the selection of vocabulary. Usually, this is achieved by reiteration, which is done through:
- repetition
- synonyms (antonyms) (The meeting began at 6 but the commencement wasn’t very smooth)
- hyponyms/hypernyms (I’ll take the chair, table and lamp- could you wrap up that furniture for me?)
- general word (the idiot’s going to fall if he isn’t careful)
polysemy;
metaphoric and idiomatic language (he’s a pig)
denotation (a dictionary definition)
connotation (many words carry extra associations)
dog> cute fluffy,/ playboy
Textual patterns are
a way to classify the textual style and content. There are three larger textual patterns:
1. Problem-solution
- Problem: concern, difficulty, dilemma, drawback, hamper, hinder, hindrance, obstacle, problem, snag
- Response: change, combat (vb), .), come up with, develop, find, measure(s), respond, response
- solution/result: answer, consequence, effect, outcome, result, solution, (re)solve
- Evaluation: (in)effective, manage, overcome, succeed, (un)successful, viable, work (vb.)
2. claim-counterclaim
common words: according to, apparently, appears, arguably, believes, claimed, consider, could, estimate, evidently, expected, forecast, imagine, likely, look, may, might, perhaps, potential, probably, reported, says, seems, should, signs, so–called, speculation, suggests, thought
3. Question-answer (Q should immediately be followed by A). Similar to problem/solution)
example of one:
Can I get the last croissant? Yes, go ahead.
What is register dependent on?
- Context (text book, magazine, newspaper, …)
- Assumption of the author about the readership (cultural, educated, tabloid readers)
- Mode (written, spoken, written to be read aloud)
- Mixed registers: pseudo-conversational register (Put ordinary exterior varnish on your door and window frames and in no time at all you’ll wish you hadn’t.)
What is modality?
Refers to the way in which language can express various stances to reality or truth. It expresses the stance and the attitude of the sender. It is concerned with assertion, tentativeness, commitment, detachment and other aspects of interpersonal meaning.
Grammatically, it is expressed through modal auxiliary verbs and other modal expressions:
- Lexical verbs (appear, assume, doubt, look as if)
- Adverbs (Actually, certainly, inevitably, possibly, probably)
- Nouns and adjectives related to them (inevitable, assumption, certainty, possible, …)
Example: It is possible for her to become president.
What are some factors influencing the choice between spoken and written mode?
Face-to-face :is it desirable? Needed or not?
[to save] face: potentially awkward/embarrassing for us or the receiver
Permanency : do you want it written out (more permanent)
Clarity in spoken mode things can be misheard, written clearer
Competence: we may be skilled more in one medium
Speed spoken is real-time, better for urgent matters
Formality written in more formal
Planning in written there is more time to play out what will be communicated
Personal issues closeness of a relationship
Social conventions the norms of interaction sometimes dictate the choice of medium
What are some myths about writing and speech and how can we debunk them?
Myths about writing:
- All writing is permanent (note on fridge)
- All writing is formal (sms)
- Writing is one way, speech is interactive (text messages interactive, poster less so)
- Writing conveys important information, speech is personal and social (recipe: message oriented, weather forecast: message oriented)
Myths about speech:
- Not all speech is temporary (recordings)
- Informal (oral presentation in school)
- More interactive (lecture)
- Used for conveying personal, social matters (weather forecast)
- Spoken language is formless and featureless:
- It has its own specific properties of organisation and linguistic features and is not meant to be written down (the transcription of speech is the reason some describe it as formless. Written language may not always sound OK when spoken (slovene: da in texts but never in real life)
Compare lexical density of spoken and written
Lexical density is measured as the number of lexical items per clause. Written language has a dense while spoken language has a sparse lexical density. This is because spoken language involves repetition, which reduces density. Also, written language includes more low frequency lexemes which increase density.
Discuss yielding in the Goffman, Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson’s model of conversational norms
- When more than one speaker is speaking, participants remedy the situation by one person yielding the turn to the other. When no one is speaking, one speaker begins to speak. The current speaker has 3 degrees of control:
- Selecting by naming
- Constraining by not selecting
- Selecting left to participants
Discuss starting in the Goffman, Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson’s model of conversational norms
- The next speaker knows when the current speaker has finished by points of possible completion or incidence of silence.
Speech exchange systems (What sorts of conversations we know): - Turn-by-turn allocation (conversation): short turns, pressure from participants to speak
- Pre-allocated turns (debates, interviews): longer turns with linked sentences, no interruptions
