Different electoral systems (ES 3.1) Flashcards
What is an electoral system?
Set of rules and procedures that determine how votes are cast, counted, and translated into seats in a legislative body or other elected offices.
> Dictates how elections are conducted and how political representatives are selected.
What is accountability?
The obligation of elected officials to explain their actions and decisions to the public.
What are the five main types of electoral systems in the UK?
FPTP (First-past-the-post)
STV (Single Transferable Vote)
AV (Alternative Vote) / SV (Supplementary Vote)
AMS (Additional Member System)
What is a mandate?
The authority given to an elected government to carry out its policies, based on winning an election.
What is a majority?
A situation where one party or candidate secures more than half of the votes or seats.
What is legitimacy?
The acceptance and recognition of a government’s right to rule, often based on free and fair elections.
What is a manifesto?
A public declaration of a political party’s goals, policies, and plans, typically presented during an election.
What is turnout?
The percentage of eligible voters who actually vote in an election.
What is participation?
The involvement of citizens in the political process.
What is the importance of holding the current representatives to account through elections?
- Allows for current office holiders to be judged on their performance over the time they have been in office
> Usually 4-5 years in the UK for most elected offices
> Ensures that there are consequences for actions.
> Ensures clear communication between officials and voters
What are the main functions of elections?
Holding the current representatives to account
Choosing an elected representative and elected government
Legitimising political power
Limiting the power of elected representatives
Development of political policy
What is the importance of choosing an elected representative and government in elections?
- Voters choose politicans to represent their views
> By winning an election, the person now has a mandate to act on behalf of voters
What is the importance of limiting the power of elected representatives through elections?
- Elections also serve to limit power
> A government knows it will face another election (at the maximum) of five years
> Elections also form the opposition; these politicans can use their power to scrutinise and challenge government policy
What is the importance of legitimising political power through an election?
- A government formed as a product of free and fair elections is ‘legitimate’
> Has the right to exercise power and authority
> If turnout is low, the election result will not effectively represent the views of the public
> Essential to legitimacy is choice; there must be competiting parties and individuals
What is the importance of developing political policy in an election?
- Elections lead to parties and candidates publishing manifestos
> Document outlining policy; winner is ultimately chosen on their promises
What is one example of public opinion impacting on a parties’ manifesto?
2017 Conservative manifesto advanced a policy which would requiore people to sell their homes to pay for social care; dubbed ‘dementia tax’ - the party had to abandon the policy aim due to public opinion.
What is a safe seat?
A safe seat is one which where the incumbent has a considerable majority over their closest rival, and is largely immune from swings in voting choice.
> Same political party retains the seat from election to election.
> A majority of Westminster constituencies are safe seats.
What is a majoritarian voting system?
A majority is 50% + 1 to win
> May refer to the number of votes needed to win a seat, or may refer to number of seats needed to form a government
> Likely to produce a two-party system
What is a plurality voting system?
A plurality of votes is having one more than any other candidate, thus winning, but not always having a majority of votes
> No majority is required to win a seat
> Likely to produce a two-party system
What is a proportional voting system?
A proportional system allocates seats in a manner which roughly reflects the precentage of votes gained by a party
> No purely proportional systems are used in the UK, but many are more proportional than the widespread FPTP
> Likely to produce a multi-party system
What is a coalition government?
A government that is formed of more than one political party
> Normally accompanied by an agreement over policy options and ministers.
What is a marginal seat?
A marginal seat is one where the incumbent holds it with a small majority.
> No precise percentage but often below 10% (where a 5% swing to the other party would mean a change of power)
> Important as they are where the outcomes of the elections are decided
> Only a minority of seats in Westminster constituencies are marginal
What is a majority government?
A government which has 50%+1 seats in Westminster.
Give one example of a plurality voting system?
FPTP (First-past-the-post)
What is a minority government?
A government that enters office without a majority of seats in the legislature (Parliament)
> Makes passing legislation very difficult
> Can lead to coalitions, confidence and supply agreements, or a sooner future election.
Give one example of a majoritarian voting system?
SV (Supplementary Vote)
Give two examples of a proportional voting system?
AMS (Additional Member System)
STV (Single Transferable Vote)
What elections use FPTP in the UK?
UK Parliament elections (every 5 years)
Local elections (every 4 years)
London Mayor elections (every 4 years)
Police and Crime Commissioner elections (every 4 years)
What elections use STV in the UK?
Northern Irish Assembly (every 5 years)
What elections use AV / SV in the UK?
AV is not currently in use for any elections.
Supplementary Vote (SV) was used for electing Mayors and Police and Crime Commissioners in the UK, but has since been replaced by FPTP (as of 2025)
What are the five features of an ideal voting system?
Choice
Simplicity
Fairness
Representation
Government
What elections use AMS in the UK?
Scottish Parliament (every 5 years)
Welsh Assembly (every 5 years)
London Assembly (every 4 years)
What is the importance of choice in an ideal voting system?
A system which gives voters a genuine choice of both party and candidate.
What is the importance of simplicity in an ideal voting system?
People are more likely to take part and to see the system as legitimate if they can easily understand how it produces an outcome.
What is the importance of fairness in an ideal voting system?
The share of seats in Parliament should reflect the share of voters gained in an election.
> If people do not feel as if their votes will be wasted, then they are more likely to participate
What is the importance of representation in an ideal voting system?
Having an MP for each constituency lets voters feel that their local issues are represented in Parliament
What is the importance of government in an ideal voting system?
A system should produce a government that can get things done
> Voters should be able to hold the government to account based on whether they feel like that government has carried out their promises
What is FPTP?
FPTP is a very simple system
> Voters get one vote. They place it next to their chosen candidate.
> Whoever gets the most votes wins (plurality system)
> No need to reach a quota or have a majority.
What are the advantages of FPTP?
Speed and simplicity
Strong and stable government
Exclusion of extremism
A strong link between MPs and constituents
What are the advantages of FPTP, in terms of speed and simplicity?
FPTP is incredibly easy to use and unserstand
- Result is often known early in the morning after polling day, allowing for a swift and orderly transfer of power
> Only exception to this is the 2010-2015 coalition, which still only took six days
What are the advantages of FPTP, in terms of forming a strong and stable government?
Tends to promote a two-party system, giving voters a clear choice
- A party is usually given a clear majority to exercise its mandate
> Enabled Margaret Thatcher to carry out her policies (i.e. reducing power of trade unions and forwarding privatisation)
What are the advantages of FPTP, in terms of excluding extremism?
Extreme parties (which may feed on racism, xenophobia and other extremist views)_ are much less likely to gain a foothold
What are the advantages of FPTP, in terms of forming a strong link between MPs and constituents?
Relatively small size of most FPTP constituencies, and the election of only a single MP, are strengths
> Single MPs handle correspondence from their constituents and hold surgeries at which they make themselves available to those seeking help and advice.
What are the disadvantages of FPTP?
Electing MPs and governments on less than 50% of vote share (minority)
Lack of proportionality; usually forms a two-party system
Winner’s bonus
Limited voter choice
Unequal vote value
What are the disadvantages of FPTP, in terms of electing on a minority of the vote share?
Over 1/2 of MPs will often not commend a majoriorty support in their constituency
> Regularly produces governments elected on a minority of the popular vote (i.e. Labour being elected on 34% of the vote in 2024, yet gaining 63% of the seats)
> Blair won 35% of the vote share in 2005
What are the disadvantages of FPTP, in terms of a lack of proportionality, leading to a two-party system?
FPTP does not translate the number of voters into seats for each party with any real accuracy
- UKIP 2015; 3.9 million votes, one seat
- Reform 2024; 4.1 million votes, five seats
- Labour 2024; 9.7 million voters, 412 seats
What are the disadvantages of FPTP, in terms of the winner’s bonus?
Winner under FPTP enjoys a share of seats in excess of the vote share it receives
- Occurs especially when there are a number of marginal seats
> i.e. Conservatives 2015; 37% of the vote, 51% of the seats
and especially…
i.e. Labour 2024; 34% of the vote, 63% of the seats
What are the disadvantages of FPTP, in terms of limited voter choice?
FPTP limits choice in several ways
- Each party putting up a single candidate, meaning there is no choice for individuals to see differing shades of opinion in their singular constituency
- Prevalence of safe seats; this can depress voter turnout
What are the disadvantages of FPTP, in terms of unequal vote value?
Voters in smaller constituencies usually count more for those in larger constituencies
- This leads to wasted votes in larger constituencies, especially if it is a ‘safe seat’
> Electoral Reform Society calculated that 74.4% of voters cast in the 2015 election were wasted, and 73.7% in 2024.
How does FPTP rank in terms of choice, simplicity, fairness, representation and government?
Choice: Poor
Simplicity: Very good
Fairness: Poor
Representation: Very poor
Government: Very good
What is AMS (Additional Member System)?
AMS is a hybrid system; a mix of FPTP and PR (Proportional Representation)
- Voters have two ballot papers and two votes
- The first ballot is a list of candidates standing to be constituency representative
> The first ballot awards winners based on who has more votes (FPTP) - The second ballot paper is a list of the parties standing in the region
> The second ballot is counted up and seats are awarded on a proportional basis, topping up any parties who are underrepresented in the first ballot
> This uses the d’Hondt formula
What are the advantages of AMS?
More proportional than FPTP
Maintaining of strong link between member and constituency
Wider choice compared to FPTP
What are the advantages of AMS, in terms of proportionality?
Top-up component introduces a proportional element
> Acts as a corrective to FPTP
What are the advantages of AMS, in terms of choice?
Electors have a wider choice
> Can vote for a ‘split ticket’, meaning they can vote for a representative of one party, and use their top-up vote to support another party.
What are the disadvantages of AMS?
Creates two types of member
Closed list system used; may limit chances of dissident members
Smaller parties still achieve less representation compared to more proportional systems
What are the disadvantages of AMS, in terms of creating two ‘types’ of member?
Two types of members
> Some with constituency responsibilities and some without
> However, there is little evidence that the second category is seen as having less legitimacy
What are the disadvantages of AMS, in terms of the closed list system?
Closed list system
> Party leadership ranks candidates in order on the list
> Can use this power to limit the chances of dissident members of the party being elected
What are the disadvantages of AMS, in terms of impacting smaller parties?
Smaller parties still achieve less representation
- Especially true in Wales where Labour benefit from the small number of top-up seats (20, compared to 40 FPTP seats)
> Labour always wins a large majority in constituency seats, and top-up seats do not have a large enough effect to take their majority (from the next party) away from them.
How does AMS rank in terms of choice, simplicity, fairness, representation and government?
Choice: Good
Simplicity: Alright
Fairness: Good
Representation: Good
Government: Alright
What is STV (Single Transferable Vote)?
STV uses multi-member constituencies
- Voters number their choices preferentially
> In order to be elected, a candidate must achieve a quote, calculated using the Droop formula (which divides number of votes cast by number of seats contested plus one)
- If a candidate reaches the quota in the first round of counting, they are elected and their second preferences are redistributed; if nobody attains the quota, the least popular candidate is eliminated and their second preferences are also transferred.
> This process is continued until all the seats are filled
What are the advantages of STV?
Very proportional
Voter choice is high
Can create power-sharing government enabling politics on common ground
Fosters a multi-party system
What are the advantages of STV, in terms of proportionality?
Close correlation between votes and seats
What are the advantages of STV, in terms of voter choice?
It is possible to choose between candidates standing for the same party as well as between candidates from different parties
What are the advantages of STV, in terms of power-sharing government?
Northern Ireland
> Has created a power-sharing government which enables representatives of two rival communities, the unionists and nationalists, to work together, ending 30 years of violent disturbance in NI
What are the disadvantages of STV?
Not fully proportional
Link between member and voters may be weak
Power-sharing governments are prone to conflict
What are the disadvantages of STV, in terms of power-sharing governments?
Power-sharing governments may bring rivals together but are prone to conflict
- NI executive has been suspended several times, including for almost five years between 2002-2007, as a result of a breakdown of trust
> Cooperation again broke down in 2017, leading to further elections
- STV has not helped centrist parties; the dominant parties are now DUP (right) and Sinn Fein (left), replacing the UUP and SDLP (centrist parties)
How does STV rank in terms of choice, simplicity, fairness, representation and government?
Choice: Very good
Simplicity: Very poor
Fairness: Very good
Representation: Very good
Government: Poor
What is SV (Supplementary Vote)?
Each voter is allowed a first and second preference vote
- Any candidate who gains more than 50% of the first preference votes is elected
- If this doesn’t occur, all candidates except the top two are eliminated
> Second preference voters are redistributed to produce one overall winner
What are the advantages of SV?
- Ensures broad support for the winner
> Sadiq Khan (2016) had the largest personal mandate of any elected politician in British history - Simple and straightforward to use
- Has allowed independent candidates to win more seats (i.e. 12/40 PCCs in 2012 were independent)
What are the disadvantages of SV?
- Not proportional; one individual is elected to a single office
> Still has wasted votes; winner does not need an absolute majority - Voters need to be able to identify the top two candidates to have an influence over the outcome, and this is not always clear
> Except in London mayoral elections (before it was changed to FPTP)
What is AV (Alternative Vote)?
AV is incredibly similar to SV, however, voters are allowed multiple preferential options
- Constituencies are single member
- Any candidate who gains more than 50% of the first preference votes is elected
- If this doesn’t occur, the lowest candidate is eliminated and second votes redistributed
> Eventually should produce one overall winner
What is the importance of AV in the UK?
AV is used to elect parliamentary select committes
- Moreover, there was an 2011 election on the use of AV for Westminster elections
> 42% turnout; 32/68 vote split (yes/no)
- AV is not a proportional system, and in certain cases (i.e. 2015 elections), AV would have produced an even less proportional result
> One campaign promise that the 2010-2015 LibDems compromised on too much.
In the 2019 general election, what was the impact of FPTP on the Conservative Party?
Gained the largest governing majority since Labour’s second landslide in 2001
> Enjoyed a Commons majority of 80 seats
In the 2019 general election, what was the impact of FPTP on the Labour Party?
Emphatic defeat
> Lost 59 seats and vote share declined 8%
> Labour’s worst postwar general election performance
In what way did the 2019 general election confirm FPTP’s strength of simplicity and quickly-declared results?
No complex formulas or quotas
> Candidate who reaches the most votes in a constituency wins
> In the 2019 general election, Johnson had recieved a formal invitiation to form a government in just 14 hours; even in the 2010-2015 coalition, it only took six days
In what way did the 2019 general election confirm FPTP’s strength of effective relationships between MPs and constituents, with clear accountability?
Use of single-member constituencies provided two main strengths
> Complete clarity on who the constituency MP is
> Ability to hold MP to account (i.e. Recall of MPs Act 2015)
- High profile casualties in the 2019 election (i.e. leader of the LibDems, Jo Swinson, losing her seat, accused of spending too much time nationally campaigning)
In what way did the 2019 general election confirm FPTP’s strength of decisive results and stable government?
Delivers decisive single-party government
> Within hours of the 2019 election result, Johnson could legitimately claim his mandate, based on his haul of 365 seats.
In what way did the 2019 general election undermine FPTP, through it distorting voting values?
Large number of wasted votes; ‘winner-takes-all’ system
> Liverpool Walton MP Carden held his seat with 84.7% of the vote, almost 30,000 more than the other candidate (all wasted votes)
> In 2019, the LibDems received a seat for every 336,000 votes, while the Conservatives received a seat for every 38,000 votes.
In what way did the 2019 general election undermine FPTP, through it not being proportional?
Electoral Reform Society revealed that Johnson would have been denied a parliamentary majority in a more proportional system
> Conservatives would have 77 fewer seats, while smaller parties (i.e. the Greens and LibDems) would have several more seats
In what way did the 2019 general election undermine FPTP, through it resulting in safe seats and uncompetitive elections?
Electoral Reform Society asserts the seat of Shropshire North had been in the hands of the Conservatives for over 200 years (no longer the case, due to a resignation and by-election)
> In 2019, almost 250 seats had not changed in over 70 years, with thirty pre-dating 1900
What was the effect of AMS in the Scottish 2016 devolved elections on the SNP?
AMS adjusted seat share to closely match vote share
- SNP won 42% of the votes cast and 49% of the seats
> Did gain a ‘winner’s bonus’ but not a decisive one
What was the effect of AMS in the Scottish 2016 devolved elections on smaller parties?
The top-up ballot (PR) helped the smaller parties to gain seats which they would not have won througgh constituency seats (FPTP)
> Greens gained six top-up seats due to their 5% of the vote
> Labour gained twenty-one top-up seats, as they received 19% of the vote share, yet only won three constituency seats (would have been incredibly disproportional using FPTP)
If FPTP had solely been used in the 2016 Scottish devolved elections, what would the result have been?
SNP would have won 59/73 of the seats, representing 81% of the seat share
> Would have been a completely disproportional landslide for the SNP, winning 81% of the seats on 42% of the vote share.
What is the overall impact of using AMS in the 2016 Scottish devolved elections?
- Prevented any party from unfairly winning an overall majority; under FPTP, the SNP would have won an undesirable landslide
- Conservatives and Labour won a fair share of the seats, forming an effective parliamentary opposition
- Small parties did gain some deserved representation
What was the effect of STV on the Northern Irish 2016 devolved elections, in terms of proportionality and the DUP?
- Proportion of seats won by each party was reasonablhy close to proportion of first prefernce votes cast
> DUP won a small ‘winner’s bonus’, but not decisively
What was the result of the Northern Irish 2016 devolved elections, and what would the result have been if FPTP was used?
No single dominant party in Northern Ireland
> Five parties won significant representation
> If seats were awarded on first and only preferences (like with FPTP), only three parties would win any significant representation.
What do the 2016 devolved elections in both Scotland (AMS) and Northern Ireland (STV) show about alternate electoral systems?
Evidence of the 2016 devolved elections show that both AMS and STV are successful
> PR, either as a hybrid (AMS) or pure proportionality (STV) does work.
