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Biology 1108 > Diabetes > Flashcards

Diabetes Flashcards

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1
Q

How do we go from food to cellular energy?

A

food/macromolecules, digestion, transport into the blood, endocrine system, then respiration (if there is no diabetes disruption)

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2
Q

What is diabetes?

A

Affects a person’s ability to produce or respond to insulin which results in abnormal blood glucose (prevents glucose from being in the cell for respiration)

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3
Q

Digestive system involved with the breakdown of food

A

includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

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4
Q

Carbohydrates

A

made of carbon and oxygen, primary source of energy for living organisms, usually sugar or starch (made by glucose), made of polar molecules called monosaccharides

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5
Q

Fats/Lipids

A

made of fatty acids (hydrocarbon chains) and sometimes a sugar or phosphate group, saturated fats have higher melting points and no double bonds = more energy

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6
Q

Proteins

A

made of amino acids (polar monomers) but the exception is carbon-hydrogen bonds which are nonpolar

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7
Q

Polarity

A

Affects where a molecule can go, what it can do, solubility (like dissolves like) and transportation; polar molecules have charged regions and can dissolve in water

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8
Q

Rule of 5

A

a molecule will act nonpolar if a chain of 5 carbons have no partial charge (continuous row)

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9
Q

Nucleic Acid

A

polar molecule made of nucleotides

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10
Q

Enzymes

A

most end in -ase, are catalysts
bring molecules (substrates) together or hold them in position to make it “easier” to create products

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11
Q

Induced-fit model

A

enzyme shape shift when bound to substrate to change its shape to cause a reaction

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12
Q

What affects an enzyme?

A

temperature (higher temp, more KE, faster reaction rate)
pH
substrate amount (more substrate, faster reaction rate)

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13
Q

SA:V in the body

A

Small intestine = small folds for long SA (more nutrients absorbed)

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14
Q

Cell Membrane

A

Semipermeable phospholipid bilayer where only nonpolar molecules can pass

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15
Q

Molecular Polarity

A

polar: has charged region, interact well with water (dissolve)
nonpolar: mostly nonpolar bonds, interact badly with water(don’t dissolve)

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16
Q

How does everything else move into the intestinal cells?

A

transmembrane proteins: extended through the entire phospholipid bilayer

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17
Q

Polar Molecule Movement

A

transmembrane proteins, active transport vs passive transport

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18
Q

Diffusion

A

nonpolar molecules only (movement from high to low concentration)

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19
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

uses channel or carrier or transporter proteins, movement from high to low concentration, passive transport

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20
Q

Active transport

A

done through pumps, etc. requires energy/ATP, can move against the concentration gradient

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21
Q

Transport in blood (overall)

A

polar/polar or nonpolar/nonpolar
hydrophilic dissolves in water, hydrophobic does not

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22
Q

Nonpolar/polar molecules in the bloodstream

A

need a chaperone or carrier protein, blood carrier proteins move nonpolar molecules through water-based blood, membrane carrier proteins move polar molecules through

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23
Q

Nervous System

A

rapid transmission of electrochemical messages that are targeted and short-lived, signal sent through blood stream

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24
Q

Endocrine System

A

a network of glands in our bodies that secrete hormones into the blood, many glands work together to achieve homeostasis

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25
Q

Hormones

A

chemical messengers that travel throughout the body in the blood, there is no response unless a hormone is bound to the receptor

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26
Q

Peptide/Protein Hormone

A

big molecules, polar like insulin

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27
Q

Amine Hormone

A

small, polar like epinephrine

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28
Q

Lipid Hormone

A

size in the middle, non-polar, steroids like testosterone

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29
Q

Hormone Transport

A

polar = dissolves in the bloodstream
nonpolar = need carrier proteins to enter bloodstream

30
Q

Extracellular Receptors

A

binding sites on the outside of the cell membrane (transmembrane proteins), hormone binds to the receptor

31
Q

Intracellular Receptors

A

binding site is on the inside of the cell in cytosol or the nucleus, forms a hormone receptor complex (HRC) which binds to DNA (acting like a promoter) and turns on/off the expression of genes

32
Q

How do hormones regulate genes?

A

Hormones bind to specific receptors that act as transcription factors, directly regulating gene expression

33
Q

Hormone regulation

A

to control the response, maintains homeostasis in a changing environment by adjusting the size of the response

34
Q

Glucoregulation

A

process of maintaining blood sugar

35
Q

Blood Glucose

A

important for metabolism (ATP)
too much = predisposed for type 2
too little = tiredness or reduced functions
hormonal regulation (negative feedback system)

36
Q

Receptors

A

part of the system that monitors the system by receiving info

37
Q

Effector

A

changes environment (organ) through variable, cannot be hormones

38
Q

Control Center

A

information is processed and sent out to some part of the brain

39
Q

Low Blood Sugar

A

hypothalamus: monitors blood sugar (receptor)
pancreas: processing info, creates “messenger” (control channel)
glucagon: hormone made when hypoglycemic, goes with blood and bumps into receptors
liver: breaks down glycogen, releases glucose into blood

40
Q

High Blood Sugar

A

hypothalamus: monitors blood sugar (receptor)
pancreas: processing info, creates “messenger” (control channel)
insulin: hormone made when blood sugar rises
liver: creates glycogen, takes it in and stores the excess as glycogen
muscle and fat tissues: take up glucose into the cells, lower blood glucose (receptor)

41
Q

Insulin and Glucose in Different Cell Types

A

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by opening up GLUT4 channels so that glucose enters body cells
Insulin binding opens GLUT4 channels on virtually any cells

liver cells: some glucose can enter and converted into and stored as glycogen

other cells: some glucose enters and is used by cellular respiration

42
Q

How does insulin control glucose transport into cells?

A

1) insulin binds to its extra cellular receptor, changing it’s shape = activation
2) phosphorylation of intracellular portion of receptors
3) chemical cascade send messages throughout the cells by taking the vesicle (storage organelle, GLUT4 transporter) and moving it to the plasma membrane, embedded itself
4) glucose channels opened and glucose enters cell, passive transport (moving to a high concentration, is a channel not a pump)
5) insulin breaks down and GLUT4 turns back into a vesicle, removed from membrane, and the channel closes

43
Q

Transport

A

molecules move into the cell (movement of the molecule) that can be dictated by the shape of a transport protein

44
Q

Transduction

A

passing of a message across a membrane (what glucose does) done by signal molecules connecting with specifically shaped receptors

45
Q

Dose Response Concept

A

Only produce a response if a receptor is bound with a hormone, creates a response; more hormone bound, the bigger the response, otherwise there would be a smaller/no response

46
Q

How can the body adjust to maintain homeostasis?

A

1) creation of inhibitors that block or promote the ability of the receptors
2) functionally removing or adding receptor amounts
3) change the amount of hormones or blood transport proteins
4) produce counteracting or amplifying hormones (like insulin and glucagon)

47
Q

Changing the amount of hormone produced

A

one hormone affects the production of another, assume everything start off a little bit on, or have a little bit available (baseline level) and from there it can increase or decrease, take the most direct path

48
Q

Feedback Inhibition (Suppression)

A

the more of something we have, the less we produce as a negative feedback loop (back to equilibrium)

49
Q

Up regulation

A

increased number of receptors, “amplifies” the effect of hormones (+ or -)

50
Q

Down regulation

A

decreased number of receptors, “dampens” the effect of hormones (+ or -)

51
Q

Inhibitors

A

Small response, down-regulate, only small number bound to receptors regardless of the amount of hormones available

52
Q

Types of Inhibitiors

A

Competitive: binds directly to the active site, blocks the substrate from attaching

Allosteric: binds to the allosteric site (secondary binding location), changing the shape of the receptor

53
Q

Allosteric Activation

A

can increased binding of hormones, enzymes, or NTs, “amplify response”

54
Q

Additive Effect

A

2 hormones do the same thing and each contribute to an outcome

55
Q

Synergistic Effect

A

2 hormone that do the same thing amplify the effect

56
Q

Permissive Effect

A

the full effect of a hormone only happens in the presence of the second, the hormones do NOT do the same thing

57
Q

Antagonistic Effect

A

one hormone opposes the action of the other (like insulin + glucagon), the hormones do NOT do the same thing

58
Q

Where does respiration begin? What about later on?

A

in the cytoplasm but the rest of the process occurs in the mitochondria

59
Q

Metabolism

A

the breaking down of complex molecules to create the energy needed to sustain life (ATP)

cellular respiration is a type of metabolism, glucose metabolism is the most common = cellular respiration

60
Q

Process of Respiration

A

1) glycolysis
2) pyruvate processing
3) citric acid cycle
4) oxidative phosphorylation

61
Q

Redox

A

oxidation of carbons releases energy (glucose to CO2), energy from glucose stored in the bonds (taken from glucose in the form of Hs and electrons), energy released from oxidation of carbons is given to electron carriers

NAD+ = NADH
FAD = FADH2

energy stored in electron carrier is used to make ATP

NADH = NAD+ (oxidation)
FADH2 = FAD (oxidation)
ADP = ATP (reduction)

62
Q

Glycolysis

A

break down glucose, virtually all organisms perform glycolysis, enzymatic/metabolic pathway
happens in the cytoplasm (cytosol) not the mitochondria

Glucose (6C sugar) == 2 molecules of pyruvate (2 3C molecule)

2 (net) ATP is made and NAD+ is converted to NADH, which needs NAD+ coming in; Uses 2 ATP to get it started, makes 4 ATP, has a net of 2 ATP

63
Q

How do we know that glucose is being oxidized in glycolysis?

A

being replaced with lower energy bonds, redox reaction (ADP and NAD+ are being reduced), has double bonds

64
Q

Pyruvate Processing

A

2 x 3C == 2 x 2C, pyruvate in the cytosol becomes acetyl CoA (placeholder) in the mitochondria
NAD+ = NADH (reduced) and CO2 is produced

65
Q

Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle

A

a little ATP and lots of electron carriers are made (NADH and FADH2)
CO2 is released, 2 acetyl CoA (4 incoming carbons) become fully oxidized as CO2,
Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix,
Energy to charge up electron carriers come from the oxidation of acetyl CoA (releases remaining energy) so the electron carriers can be reduced and CO2 is released as we breathe out

66
Q

Net ATP made

A

Glycolysis: 2
Pyruvate Processing: 0
Krebs Cycle: 2
Oxidative Phosphorylation: 25 - 30

67
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation (ETC)

A

1) High energy electrons enter,
2) Protein subunits pass electrons from one to the next
3) As they lose energy they pump H+ into the intermembrane space
4) Connect to oxygen (O2) as the “final electron acceptor” to become water

**Without oxygen there is no flow of electrons going and gradient produced so that means now ATP synthase (it all backs up) and anaerobic respiration does not produce enough energy to survive

68
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation (ATP-synthase)

A

1) the H+ gradient to make ATP by reducing ADP
2) moves H+ from the intermembrane space back into the matrix where the most amount of ATP is generated passively

69
Q

Type 1 Diabetes

A

insulin issue, no GLUT4 receptors show up in order to let the molecule inside, autoimmune disorder

70
Q

Type 2 Diabetes

A

insensitivity of receptors, disconnect when insulin binds and cell response;
not having enough sugar for respiration can lead to a huge range of issues: heart and blood vessel damage, eye damage, cognitive issues, wound regeneration, etc.

71
Q

Photosynthesis and Respiration

A

Stores solar energy as chemical energy by reducing CO2 to glucose — releases the chemical energy in glucose
by oxidizing it into CO2 and using that released energy to make ATP, glucose in cells goes towards cellular respiration

72
Q

What is diabetes?

A

identified by elevated blood glucose levels that are a result of a problem with glucose transport into cells -
it’s a problem with prolonged periods of elevated blood glucose (not just for a short amount of time)

Biology 1108 (4 decks)

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