Diabetes Flashcards
How do we go from food to cellular energy?
food/macromolecules, digestion, transport into the blood, endocrine system, then respiration (if there is no diabetes disruption)
What is diabetes?
Affects a person’s ability to produce or respond to insulin which results in abnormal blood glucose (prevents glucose from being in the cell for respiration)
Digestive system involved with the breakdown of food
includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
Carbohydrates
made of carbon and oxygen, primary source of energy for living organisms, usually sugar or starch (made by glucose), made of polar molecules called monosaccharides
Fats/Lipids
made of fatty acids (hydrocarbon chains) and sometimes a sugar or phosphate group, saturated fats have higher melting points and no double bonds = more energy
Proteins
made of amino acids (polar monomers) but the exception is carbon-hydrogen bonds which are nonpolar
Polarity
Affects where a molecule can go, what it can do, solubility (like dissolves like) and transportation; polar molecules have charged regions and can dissolve in water
Rule of 5
a molecule will act nonpolar if a chain of 5 carbons have no partial charge (continuous row)
Nucleic Acid
polar molecule made of nucleotides
Enzymes
most end in -ase, are catalysts
bring molecules (substrates) together or hold them in position to make it “easier” to create products
Induced-fit model
enzyme shape shift when bound to substrate to change its shape to cause a reaction
What affects an enzyme?
temperature (higher temp, more KE, faster reaction rate)
pH
substrate amount (more substrate, faster reaction rate)
SA:V in the body
Small intestine = small folds for long SA (more nutrients absorbed)
Cell Membrane
Semipermeable phospholipid bilayer where only nonpolar molecules can pass
Molecular Polarity
polar: has charged region, interact well with water (dissolve)
nonpolar: mostly nonpolar bonds, interact badly with water(don’t dissolve)
How does everything else move into the intestinal cells?
transmembrane proteins: extended through the entire phospholipid bilayer
Polar Molecule Movement
transmembrane proteins, active transport vs passive transport
Diffusion
nonpolar molecules only (movement from high to low concentration)
Facilitated Diffusion
uses channel or carrier or transporter proteins, movement from high to low concentration, passive transport
Active transport
done through pumps, etc. requires energy/ATP, can move against the concentration gradient
Transport in blood (overall)
polar/polar or nonpolar/nonpolar
hydrophilic dissolves in water, hydrophobic does not
Nonpolar/polar molecules in the bloodstream
need a chaperone or carrier protein, blood carrier proteins move nonpolar molecules through water-based blood, membrane carrier proteins move polar molecules through
Nervous System
rapid transmission of electrochemical messages that are targeted and short-lived, signal sent through blood stream
Endocrine System
a network of glands in our bodies that secrete hormones into the blood, many glands work together to achieve homeostasis
Hormones
chemical messengers that travel throughout the body in the blood, there is no response unless a hormone is bound to the receptor
Peptide/Protein Hormone
big molecules, polar like insulin
Amine Hormone
small, polar like epinephrine
Lipid Hormone
size in the middle, non-polar, steroids like testosterone
Hormone Transport
polar = dissolves in the bloodstream
nonpolar = need carrier proteins to enter bloodstream
Extracellular Receptors
binding sites on the outside of the cell membrane (transmembrane proteins), hormone binds to the receptor
Intracellular Receptors
binding site is on the inside of the cell in cytosol or the nucleus, forms a hormone receptor complex (HRC) which binds to DNA (acting like a promoter) and turns on/off the expression of genes
How do hormones regulate genes?
Hormones bind to specific receptors that act as transcription factors, directly regulating gene expression
Hormone regulation
to control the response, maintains homeostasis in a changing environment by adjusting the size of the response
Glucoregulation
process of maintaining blood sugar
Blood Glucose
important for metabolism (ATP)
too much = predisposed for type 2
too little = tiredness or reduced functions
hormonal regulation (negative feedback system)
Receptors
part of the system that monitors the system by receiving info
Effector
changes environment (organ) through variable, cannot be hormones
Control Center
information is processed and sent out to some part of the brain
Low Blood Sugar
hypothalamus: monitors blood sugar (receptor)
pancreas: processing info, creates “messenger” (control channel)
glucagon: hormone made when hypoglycemic, goes with blood and bumps into receptors
liver: breaks down glycogen, releases glucose into blood
High Blood Sugar
hypothalamus: monitors blood sugar (receptor)
pancreas: processing info, creates “messenger” (control channel)
insulin: hormone made when blood sugar rises
liver: creates glycogen, takes it in and stores the excess as glycogen
muscle and fat tissues: take up glucose into the cells, lower blood glucose (receptor)
Insulin and Glucose in Different Cell Types
Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by opening up GLUT4 channels so that glucose enters body cells
Insulin binding opens GLUT4 channels on virtually any cells
liver cells: some glucose can enter and converted into and stored as glycogen
other cells: some glucose enters and is used by cellular respiration
How does insulin control glucose transport into cells?
1) insulin binds to its extra cellular receptor, changing it’s shape = activation
2) phosphorylation of intracellular portion of receptors
3) chemical cascade send messages throughout the cells by taking the vesicle (storage organelle, GLUT4 transporter) and moving it to the plasma membrane, embedded itself
4) glucose channels opened and glucose enters cell, passive transport (moving to a high concentration, is a channel not a pump)
5) insulin breaks down and GLUT4 turns back into a vesicle, removed from membrane, and the channel closes
Transport
molecules move into the cell (movement of the molecule) that can be dictated by the shape of a transport protein
Transduction
passing of a message across a membrane (what glucose does) done by signal molecules connecting with specifically shaped receptors
Dose Response Concept
Only produce a response if a receptor is bound with a hormone, creates a response; more hormone bound, the bigger the response, otherwise there would be a smaller/no response
How can the body adjust to maintain homeostasis?
1) creation of inhibitors that block or promote the ability of the receptors
2) functionally removing or adding receptor amounts
3) change the amount of hormones or blood transport proteins
4) produce counteracting or amplifying hormones (like insulin and glucagon)
Changing the amount of hormone produced
one hormone affects the production of another, assume everything start off a little bit on, or have a little bit available (baseline level) and from there it can increase or decrease, take the most direct path
Feedback Inhibition (Suppression)
the more of something we have, the less we produce as a negative feedback loop (back to equilibrium)
Up regulation
increased number of receptors, “amplifies” the effect of hormones (+ or -)
Down regulation
decreased number of receptors, “dampens” the effect of hormones (+ or -)
Inhibitors
Small response, down-regulate, only small number bound to receptors regardless of the amount of hormones available
Types of Inhibitiors
Competitive: binds directly to the active site, blocks the substrate from attaching
Allosteric: binds to the allosteric site (secondary binding location), changing the shape of the receptor
Allosteric Activation
can increased binding of hormones, enzymes, or NTs, “amplify response”
Additive Effect
2 hormones do the same thing and each contribute to an outcome
Synergistic Effect
2 hormone that do the same thing amplify the effect
Permissive Effect
the full effect of a hormone only happens in the presence of the second, the hormones do NOT do the same thing
Antagonistic Effect
one hormone opposes the action of the other (like insulin + glucagon), the hormones do NOT do the same thing
Where does respiration begin? What about later on?
in the cytoplasm but the rest of the process occurs in the mitochondria
Metabolism
the breaking down of complex molecules to create the energy needed to sustain life (ATP)
cellular respiration is a type of metabolism, glucose metabolism is the most common = cellular respiration
Process of Respiration
1) glycolysis
2) pyruvate processing
3) citric acid cycle
4) oxidative phosphorylation
Redox
oxidation of carbons releases energy (glucose to CO2), energy from glucose stored in the bonds (taken from glucose in the form of Hs and electrons), energy released from oxidation of carbons is given to electron carriers
NAD+ = NADH
FAD = FADH2
energy stored in electron carrier is used to make ATP
NADH = NAD+ (oxidation)
FADH2 = FAD (oxidation)
ADP = ATP (reduction)
Glycolysis
break down glucose, virtually all organisms perform glycolysis, enzymatic/metabolic pathway
happens in the cytoplasm (cytosol) not the mitochondria
Glucose (6C sugar) == 2 molecules of pyruvate (2 3C molecule)
2 (net) ATP is made and NAD+ is converted to NADH, which needs NAD+ coming in; Uses 2 ATP to get it started, makes 4 ATP, has a net of 2 ATP
How do we know that glucose is being oxidized in glycolysis?
being replaced with lower energy bonds, redox reaction (ADP and NAD+ are being reduced), has double bonds
Pyruvate Processing
2 x 3C == 2 x 2C, pyruvate in the cytosol becomes acetyl CoA (placeholder) in the mitochondria
NAD+ = NADH (reduced) and CO2 is produced
Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle
a little ATP and lots of electron carriers are made (NADH and FADH2)
CO2 is released, 2 acetyl CoA (4 incoming carbons) become fully oxidized as CO2,
Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix,
Energy to charge up electron carriers come from the oxidation of acetyl CoA (releases remaining energy) so the electron carriers can be reduced and CO2 is released as we breathe out
Net ATP made
Glycolysis: 2
Pyruvate Processing: 0
Krebs Cycle: 2
Oxidative Phosphorylation: 25 - 30
Oxidative Phosphorylation (ETC)
1) High energy electrons enter,
2) Protein subunits pass electrons from one to the next
3) As they lose energy they pump H+ into the intermembrane space
4) Connect to oxygen (O2) as the “final electron acceptor” to become water
**Without oxygen there is no flow of electrons going and gradient produced so that means now ATP synthase (it all backs up) and anaerobic respiration does not produce enough energy to survive
Oxidative Phosphorylation (ATP-synthase)
1) the H+ gradient to make ATP by reducing ADP
2) moves H+ from the intermembrane space back into the matrix where the most amount of ATP is generated passively
Type 1 Diabetes
insulin issue, no GLUT4 receptors show up in order to let the molecule inside, autoimmune disorder
Type 2 Diabetes
insensitivity of receptors, disconnect when insulin binds and cell response;
not having enough sugar for respiration can lead to a huge range of issues: heart and blood vessel damage, eye damage, cognitive issues, wound regeneration, etc.
Photosynthesis and Respiration
Stores solar energy as chemical energy by reducing CO2 to glucose — releases the chemical energy in glucose
by oxidizing it into CO2 and using that released energy to make ATP, glucose in cells goes towards cellular respiration
What is diabetes?
identified by elevated blood glucose levels that are a result of a problem with glucose transport into cells -
it’s a problem with prolonged periods of elevated blood glucose (not just for a short amount of time)
