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DHUBS1 WK4-7 Flashcards

1
Q

what is the endocrine system function?

A
  • control bodily functions
  • exerts control by releasing hormones
  • maintain internal homeostasis
  • support tissue growth
    coordinate development
  • coordinate reproduction and fertility
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2
Q

list the endocrine glands

A

hypothalamus
pineal glan
pituitary gland
thyroid gland
parathyroid gland
pancrease
adrenal gland
ovary
testis
gastrointestinal tract

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3
Q

what is the pancreas?

A

endocrine and exocrine organ
endocrine function: secreating insulin and glucagon, regulates blood glucose, lipids and proetin metabolism
exocrine function: contributes digestive enzymes to GI tract

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3
Q

the hypothalamus produces two releasing and inhibiting hormones, name them

A
  • anti-diuretic hormone: increases water absorption by kidneys
  • certicotrophin-releasing hormone: stimulates release of corticosteroid: regulate metabolism and immune response
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4
Q

when blood glucose rise…

A

beta cells secrete insulin, stimulates transport of glucose across cell membranes (into cells)

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5
Q

when blood glucose levels decrease…

A

alpha cells secrete glucagon, stimulates glycogen breakdown and glucose release by liver

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6
Q

what are the 3 classes of hormones based on chemical structure

A
  • amino acid derivatives
  • peptide hormones
  • lipid derivatives
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7
Q

class of hormones - amino acid derivatives

A
  • small molecules structurally related to ammino acids
  • synthesised
  • tyrosine
  • tryptophan
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8
Q

class of hormones - peptide hormones

A
  • chains of amino acids
  • synthesised as prohormones
  • two groups: glycoproteins, and shorts polypeptide chains and small proteins
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9
Q

class of hormones - lipid derivatives

A

two groups
- eicosanoids: derived fmor arachidonic acid
- steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol
can go into the cell because they can pass the plasma membrane

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10
Q

comparison of nervous and endocrine system

A

direct comunication vs indirect communication
quick response vs slow acting, slow response
responds to physical and chemical stimuli vs responds to chemical stimuli
both capable of secreting

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11
Q

what are the skeletal matters?

A

disease/genetics
hormone ablative therapy
spinal cord or nerve injury
surgery and rehabilitation
aging
microgravity
bone structure demand

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12
Q

function of bones

A

structure, support and framework for musculature attachments
protection of internal and vital organs
allows and/or limits movement or rotation
storage of fats in hte yellow bone marrow
site of attachments for tendons and ligaments

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13
Q

bone structure

A

cortical bone
cancellous
medullary canal

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14
Q

how do long bones form?

A

endochondral ossification (6 steps)
1. Cartilage: stem cells – chondrocytes, make cartilage
2. Growth of cartilage: cells in centre burst, triggering calcification
3. Primary ossification centre: nutrients artery penetrates centre of cartilage. Bone mineral matrix covers the calcified cartilage forming spongy bone.
4. Medullary cavity: bone mineral is reshaped and remodelled to from medullary cavity
5. Secondary ossification centre: blood vesicles enter the epiphyses (around time of birth). Cancellous bone is formed but no medullary cavity
6. Formation of cartilage on the joints: cartilage

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15
Q

what is the bone made up of?

A
  1. Organic collagen matrix – 10% of adult bone mass is collagen, provides flexibility
  2. Inorganic mineral – 65% of adult bone mass called hydroxyapatite, an insoluble salt of calcium and phosphorus
  3. Water – approximately 25% of adult bone mass
  4. Trace amounts of magnesium, sodium and bicarbonate
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16
Q

what cells make and remodel bone?

A

osteoblasts
osteoclasts

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17
Q

explain osteoblasts

A

are bone forming cells, found on the
bone surface. they make the collagen chains that will form the mature organic collagen matrix

  • matrix formation
  • secretes type 1 collagen
  • regulates mineralisation
  • positioned above osteoid matrix
  • differentiates to become osteocyte
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18
Q

explain osteoclasts

A
  • digests bone
  • large multi-nucleated
  • exhibits ruffled border and clear zone
  • exhibits polarity with nuclei away from bone surface
  • high density of golgi stacks, mitochondria and lysosomal vesicles
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19
Q

explain bone lining cells

A
  • flat, elongated cells
  • generally inactive
  • cover surfaces of inactive bone
  • thouhgt to be precursor cells to osteoblasts
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20
Q

joint classification - two ways

A

according to structure
according to function/movement

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21
Q

joint classification - structure

A
  • synovial joint (most common): articulating surfaces enclosed within a fluid-filled joint capsule
  • cartilagious joint (primary and secondary): articulating surfaces connected by catrilage
  • fibrous joint (suture): articulating surfaces connected by fibrous tissue
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22
Q

joint classification- function/movement

A
  • diarthrodial joint: lots of movement, freely moveable
  • amphiarthrodial joint: little bit of movement
    synarthrodial joint: almost no movement
23
Q

major organs of the muscular system

A

skeletal muscles
tendons

24
functions of the muscular system
body movement maintenance of posture respiration protect and support other tissues generate heat that helps to maintain body temperature communication control of blood flow in vessels
25
three types of muscle tissues
- Skeletal muscle: Contraction produces body movement Striated muscles that move bones around joints - Smooth muscle: Contraction pushes fluids and/or solids through internal organs and passageways Located in the walls of hollow organs, blood vessels and glands - Cardiac muscle: Contraction pumps blood through the cardiovascular system Striated muscle cells that make up the walls of the heart
26
describe function of skeletal muscles
- Produce movement by pulling on tendons and bones - Maintain posture and body position - Support soft tissues - Guard body entrances and exits - Maintain body heat - Store nutrients
27
skeletal muscle characteristics
cytoplasm: called sacroplasm plasma membrane: called sacrolemma myofibrils myofilaments sacroplasmic reticulum transverse tubules (T tubules) sacromere thin and thick filaments
28
what happens when a muscle is contracting?
interaction occurs between thin and thick filaments within the sacromere. thin filaments slide towards the centre of each sacromere
29
how does the muscle stop contracting?
interaction ceases between thin and thick filaments wihtin the sacromere. muscle returns to relaxing state.
30
what are the 5 steps that initiate muscle contraction?
1. Ach release Ach is released at the neuromuscular junction and binds to Ach receptors on the sarcolemma 2. Action potential reaches T tubule An action potential is generated and spreads across the membrane surface of the muscle fibre and along the T tubules. 3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases CA2+ The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases stored calcium ions 4. Active site exposure and cross-bridge formation Calcium ions bind to troponin, exposing the active sites on the thin filaments. Cross-bridges from when myosin heads bind to those active sites 5. Contraction cycle begins The contraction cycle begins as repeated cycles of cross-bridge binding, pivoting and detachment occur – all powered by ATP
31
what are the 5 steps that end muscle contraction?
6. Ach is broken down Ach is broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), ending action potential generation 7. Sarcoplasmic reticulum reabsorbs CA2+ As the calcium ions are reabsorbed, their concentration in the cytosol decreases 8. Active sites covered, and cross-bridge formation ends Without calcium ions, the tropomyosin returns to it's normal position and the active sites are covered again 9. Contraction ends Without cross-bridge formation, contraction ends 10. Muscle relaxation occurs The muscle returns passively to it's resting length
32
fact about energy for muscle contraction
the muscle fibre must make more ATP during the contraction to sustain the contraction for longer than 2 seconds
33
smooth muscle characteristics
has no striations involuntary - no concious control found in walls of hollow organs actin and myosin filament arrangements is more plastic, allowing greater adaptability
34
cardiac muscle characteristics
has striations involuntary
35
the effect of exercise on muscle
1. increased endurance 2. increased strength of muscle
36
the cardiovascular system consists of...
the heart blood vessels fluid connective tissue (blood)
37
functions of blood
1. Transport of substances (e.g. gases, waste products, hormones, nutrients) 2. Regulation of blood pH and blood ions (e.g. absorbs and neutralises lactic acid) 3. Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites (blood clotting) 4. Defence against toxins and pathogens (white blood cells) 5. Stabilisation of body temperature (absorbs heat form active muscles, distributes to other tissues) 6. Maintenance of blood volume (protein(albumin))
38
4 basic blood types
- Type A (surface antigen A) has antibodies to B - Type B (surface antigen B) has antibodies to A - Type AB (surface antigens A and B) neither antibodies - Type O (neither A nor B surface antigens) antigens to A and B
39
Thrombocytes (platelets)
- Cell fragments involved in human clotting system - Disc-shaped structures - Circulate for 9-12 dyas - Are removed by spleen - Three functions 1. Release important clotting chemicals 2. Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls 3. Actively contract tissue after clot formation
40
how body stops bleeding (3 basic steps)
1. vascular phase 2. platelet phase 3. coagulation phase
41
explain vascular phase
- Vascular spasm – 30 min Smooth muscle contracts in damaged vessel - Caused by: Damage to smooth muscle Activation of platelets: release of vasoconstrictors Reflexes initiated by pain receptors
42
explain platelet phase
- Begins within 15sec of injury - Platelet plug formation: where they contact and stick to damaged tissue in vessel wall. The platelets are activated: extend projection and attach to each other, then release clotting compounds.
43
explain coagulation phase
- Begins 30 seconds or more after the injury - Blood clotting (coagulation) - Clotting factors (liver enzymes, platelets) promote formation of prothrombinase - Converts prothrombin into thrombin Convert circulating fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin Fibrin forms threads which traps formed elements to make clot
44
2 circuits of the cardio vascular system
pulmonary circuit: blood to and from the lungs systematic circuit: blood to and from all other organ systems
45
three walls of the heart
called the parietal pericardium cover which consists of 1. Epicardium wall: surrounding the heart 2. Myocardium wall: cardiac muscle 3. Endocardium wall: simple squamous epithelial, lining the heart
46
heart structure - anterior surface
- Pulmonary trunk - Aortic arch - Left atrium - Left ventricle - Right ventricle - Right atrium - Superior vena cava - Ascending aorta
47
internal heart structure
4 chambers: - 2 Atria - 2 Ventricles 4 valves: - 2 are called atrioventricular valves (AV valves) between atria and ventricles R- side = tricuspid L- side = bicuspid (Mitral) - 2 are called semilunar valves (SL valves) One at the entrance to lungs = pulmonary valve One at the base of aorta = aortic valve
48
internal heart structure thats CO2 rich blood
- Superior vena cava - Right atrium - Pulmonary valve - Tricuspid valve - Right ventricle - Inferior vena cava
49
internal heart structure thats O2 rich blood
- Aortic arch - Pulmonary trunk - Left atrium - Aortic valve - Mitral valve (bicuspid) - Chordae tendineae - Papillary muscle - Left ventricle - Interventricular septum
50
vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle
coronary arteries cardiac veins
51
two types of cardiac musclce cells involved in our heartbeat
1. myocardial conducting cells: two types - pacemaker cells and cardiac conducting cells 2. myocardial contractile cells
52
conduction system pathway in heart
1. Sinoatrial (SA) node 2. Atrioventricular (AV) node 3. AV bundle 4. R and L bundle branches 5. Purkinje fibres
53
the cardiac output
the volume of blood pumper out of each ventricle in 1 minute
54
how to calculate cardiac output
cardiac output (mL/min) = heart rate (beats/min) x stroke volume (mL/beat) (volume of blood pumped out by one ventricel with each beat)
55
factors that control cardiac output
autonomic nervous system cirulating hormones electrolyte imbalances and changes in body temperature can increase/reduce CO

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