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DHUBS1 WK1-3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the steps involved in fertilisation?

A
  1. Sperm penetrates between granulosa cells
  2. Some of the zona pellucida is degraded by acrosomal enzymes
  3. Sperm and egg plasma membrane fuses
  4. The sperm nucleus disassociates and enters cytoplasm
  5. Additional sperm can no longer penetrate the zona pellucida
  6. Cortical granulised release enzymes that harden zona pellucida and strip it of sperm receptors. Hyalin attracts water by osmosis
  7. Sperm and egg pronuclei are enclosed in a nuclear envelope
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2
Q

Explain the cleavage and blastula stage

A
  • Cleavage: embryo stays the same size (more cells, smaller size with each division)
  • Cleavage ends with the formation of a blastocyst in mammals (outer layer of cells = trophoblast = responsible for implantation, inner cell mass = becomes the organism)
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3
Q

What is gastrulation?

A

Gastrulation is a process during embryonic development that changes the embryo from a blastula with a single layer of cells to a gastrula containing multiple layers of cells. It involves cellular rearrangement involving migration, invagination and differentiation of cells (occurs in week 3)

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4
Q

What forms the three primary germ layers?

A
  • endoderm: within skin
  • mesoderm: middle skin
  • ectoderm: outside skin
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5
Q

What are the four substages of the process of development?

A
  • cell division
  • differentiation
  • pattern formation
  • morphogenesis
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6
Q

Describe a bit about cell division

A

it is necessary in order to allow a single cell to develop into a multicellular organism

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7
Q

Describe a bit about differentiation

A

orchestrated changes in gene expression between cells are required to create the specialised cell lineages. cells become “determined” before differentiation.

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8
Q

Describe a bit about pattern formation

A

cells must become orientated to the body plan/species it will become

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9
Q

Describe a bit about morphogenesis

A

as development proceeds in the organs and anatomical features form by the way of cell division, cell death, migration, changes in shape and differentiation. the generation of ordered form and structure.

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10
Q

What are tissues?

A

a group of similar cells organised to perform a specific function

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11
Q

What are the four primary tissue types?

A

epithelial tissues
connective tissues
muscle tissue
nervous tissue

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12
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

the maintenance of relatively stable internal body conditions despite change that occur inside or outside the body

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13
Q

Homeostasis regulation: what are the two general mechanisms?

A
  • auto-regulation: adjustment in response to a local environmental change
  • extrinsic regulation: adjustment in response to more wide spread environmental change. results from activities of the nervous or endocrine system.
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14
Q

Homeostasis regulatory mechanism consist of 3 components, what are they?

A
  • Receptor: sensor that is sensitive to a particular stimulus or environmental change
  • Control centre: receives and processes the information supplied by the receptor and sends out commands
  • Effector: cell or organ that responds to the commands of the control centre activity either opposes or enhances the stimulus
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15
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

Maintains homeostasis by returning a variable to the tolerance range by reducing the original stimulus. this is most used by control systems that use hormones (e.g. controlling body temperature)

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16
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

enhances the original stimulus (childbirth)(if you have a cut its a positive feedback loop)

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17
Q

What are the major organs of the integumentary system?

A

skin
hair
nails
sweat glands

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18
Q

what is the function of the integumentary system?

A
  • Protection against environmental hazards
  • Excretion pf salt, water and organic waste
  • Maintenance of body temperature
  • Synthesis of vitamin D
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19
Q

The skin is made up of what?

A

epidermis and dermis

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20
Q

Explain epidermis

A

consists of stratified squamous epithelium which contains two types of cells:
- keratinocytes: epithelial cells that contain a protein called keratin
- melanocytes: produce melatonin

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21
Q

anatomical terms
superior =

A

above

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22
Q

anatomical terms
inferior =

A

below

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23
Q

anatomical terms
medial =

A

toward midline

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24
Q

anatomical terms
lateral =

A

away from midline

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25
anatomical terms proximal =
toward point of attachement of a limb to the trunk
26
anatomical terms distal =
away from point of attachment of a limb of the trunk
27
anatomical terms superficial =
near surface
28
anatomical terms deep =
far from surface
29
anatomical terms posterior =
back surface
30
anatomical terms anterior =
front surface
31
anatomical terms dorsal =
back
32
anatomical terms ventral =
belly
33
anatomical terms caudal =
toward the tail
34
name the 6 levels of organisation in the human body
chemical levels cellular level tissue level organ level organ system level organism level
35
what are the two general classes of cells in humans?
- sex cells: reproductive cells - somatic cells: all other cells in the body
36
What are the main structures of a typical somatic cells?
- plasma membrane = outer membrane - cytoplasm = material between plasma membrane and nucleus - nucleus = contorl centre for cellular operations
37
What are the 4 basic mechanisms of cell signalling?
Direct contact – direct interaction between cells Paracrine signalling – communication between neighbouring cells (adjacent target cells) Endocrine signalling – communication between distal cells (hormone secretion into blood vessels by endocrine gland) Synaptic signalling - in the nervous system, sending signals between the synaptic gap (space between cells)
38
Explain ligands and receptors
- Ligands behave like a ‘key’ whilst receptors are like the ‘lock’ - You must have the correct key to open the lock and vice versa - The correct key initiates the process of signal transduction
39
What are the major oragns of the nervous system?
brain spinal cord peripheral nerves sense organs
40
what is the function of the nervous system?
- maintain homeostasis by controlling organ systems and behavioural drives - cognition and memory - provides and interpruts sensory infromation about external conditions - contorl of skeletal muscles
41
what are the basic parts of neurons?
- cell body or soma: contains the cell nucleus and other neurons - axon: carries infromation toward other neurons - dendrites: recieves infromation form other neurons
42
Classification of neurons (three types of neurons)
- sensory neurons: deliver infromation from sensory receptors to the CNS - moter neurons: deliver information about movement from the CNS - interneurons: form connections with other neurons
43
What are the three way information travels within the nervous system?
neurotransmission membrane potential action potential
44
Describe action potential
is a sudden rise and fall in membrane potential of a neuron in response to a stimulus. It is a temporary shift in the neuron’s resting membrane potential when it sends information down the axon away from the cell body.
45
describe the 4 steps of action potential
1. a graded polarisation brings an area of exitable membrane to threshold (-60mV) 2. voltage-gated sodium channels open and sodium ions move into teh cells. the transmembrane potential rises to +30mV 3. sodium channels close, voltage-gated potassium channels open, and potassium ions move out of the cell. repolarisation begins. 4. potassium cahnnels close, and both sodium and pottasium channels return to theri normal states
46
what are the four major brain regions
- cerebrum - cerebellum - diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, ineal gland and pituitary gland - brain stem: mesencephalon, pones, medulla oblongata
47
what is the function of the central nervous system?
- integrating and processing information - coordinating sensory information and commands - learning and memory
48
what is the function of the peripheral nervous system?
- carries sensory information from the body to the CNS - carries commands from the CNS to the body
49
the peripheral nervous system is divided into two, what are they?
automnomic system: controls unconcious functions (heart rate etc...) includes glands, smooth muscle, cardic muscle, and adipose tissue somatic nervous system: 'pertaining to the body' includes skeletal muscles, skin and joints
50
the somatic and autonomic nervous system consist of two componenets, what are they?
afferent - conveys sensory information from the external envrinoment to the CNS efferent - conveys motor information from the CNS to end organ
51
describe the withdrawal reflex
1. Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor 2. Activation of a sensory neuron 3. Information processing in the CNS 4. Activation of a motor neuron 5. Response by a peripheral effector
52
Name 4 elements in the human body and their % of total body weight
Oxygen (65) Carbon (18.6) Hydrogen (9.7) Nitrogen (3.2)
53
what does the neuroglia consist of in the CNS
astrocytes edenymal cells oligodendrocytes microgolia
54
what does the neuroglia consist of ine the PNS
satellite cells schwann cells myelin
55
what are the functions for the basic parts of a neuron?
cell body: contains nucleus and other organelles dendrites: recieves infromation from other neurons axon: carries infromation towards other neurons or cells axon hillock: start of the axon axon terminal: end of axon
56
what is the parasympathatic nervous system
rest and digest
57
what is the sympathatic nervous system
fight or flight
58
what is the transverse plane
top and bottom
59
what is the sagittal plane
left and right
60
what is the coronal plane
front and back

ACC (5 decks)

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