Developmental Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Relationships, friends & peers
A
- SE can be enhanced by having just one good friend
2
Q
Technology?
A
- How do you think relatively recent advances in technology might have changed the nature of friendships?
- Is it a positive or negative change?
- Do social media sites make you feel like every-one is having a great time except you or is it easier to keep in touch?
3
Q
Relationships
A
- The internal working model (Bowlby, 1980) forms the basic framework from which the child holds expectations of how others see them
- Parent and/or peer relations can be positive or negative as good parenting can be undermined by disruptive peers and poor parenting can be compensated for by positive friendships
- Self- esteem can be enhanced by having just one close friend
4
Q
Duck (1983)
A
- “It is quite clear from the available data that the socially withdrawn, socially incompetent and aggressive child soon becomes the socially inept adult social casualty……. If friend-making had been properly learned ……- their violent, destructive and unusual personalities may have turned out in a more rewarding and acceptable form”
5
Q
Why study peer relationships?
A
- Child-child relationships have important effects on cognitive, social and emotional development
- In a clinical setting troubled peer relationships are associated with immediate & later adjustment problems (van Goozen, 2010)
- However, be cautious – often extremely troubled cases of clinically referred children whose difficulties are a complex interaction between physiology and circumstances (Shivley, 2006)
6
Q
Emotional development: Ekman (1974)
A
- Basic emotions believed to be innate and universal in all humans and primates (happiness, anger, fear, surprise, interest, sadness and disgust*) Self-conscious emotions emerge between 1-2 years (pride, shame, jealousy)
- More complex emotions develop as children mature – moral emotions (guilt)
7
Q
Temperament
A
- Temperament is defined as a tendency towards a particular emotional and behavioural response
- Temperament was described as: easy going, difficult, slow to warm up
✳︎ Rothbart & Bates (1987)
8
Q
3 influential theories of peer relationships
A
- Cognitive-developmental
- Environmental-learning
- Ethological
- Different emphasis on intrinsic (internal) versus extrinsic (external) factors
- Different methodological approaches
9
Q
Theory 1: Cognitive Developmental
A
- Maturation through stages of development leads to the infant becoming more sophisticated in their thinking
- Developmental – maturation leads to a more sophisticated cognitive functioning
- Piaget (1930s though publication dates circa 1960)
10
Q
Theory 2: Environmental-learning
A
- Through interaction with the environment an infant learns appropriate behaviour known as ‘display rules’
- Bandura (1977) Social Learning Theory
11
Q
Theory 3: Ethological theory
A
- Stems from an evolutionary approach explains behaviour in terms of adaptation and survival – ethology human and animal behaviour from a biological perspective
- Bowlby (1980); Hinde (1978)
- Emphasises:
1: The innate basis of behaviour that is common to all
2: Naturalistic studies
∙ Bowlby (1980)
∙ Hinde (1978)
12
Q
Hinde re: the formation of dominance hierarchies
A
- Reduction of aggression and facilitation of conflict resolution
13
Q
Research into Dominance Hierarchies shows:
A
- They start at a very early age (pre-school) - (La Freniere et al., 1984)
- They are effective in minimising aggression (summer camps 12-16 yrs) - (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2000; Savin-Williams, 1979)
- However, methodological issue are the ecologically valid?
14
Q
From theory to application
A
- Why are peer relations important?
- What processes are involved in becoming/staying popular/having friends?
- What are the implications of having/not having positive friendships?
15
Q
How do we assess the nature of a child’s social relationships?
A
- Two types of social acceptance by peers: popularity & friendship
- Popularity - acceptance by the peer group
- Friendship - closer and more intimate relationship
16
Q
Sociometric techniques
A
- Who do you like to play with?
- Rate your classmates (using board of photographs)
- Aggressive children rarely chosen
- Attractive children also popular children
17
Q
Methodology: assessing quality of peer relations:
A
- Sociometry: Popular, average, rejected, neglected & controversial – limitation = children as raters
- Observations – limitation = making inferences
- Rating scales completed by teachers and parents – limitation = social desirability
= Therefore, we need to apply caution
18
Q
Strengths & Difficulties Questionnaire - (Goodman, 1997)
A
- 25 items + additional concerns
1. Considerate of other people’s feelings
2. Restless, active, cannot sit still for long
8. Many worries, often seems worried
14. Generally liked by other children
18. Often lies or cheats
21. Thinks things out before acting
23. Gets on better with adults than other children
19
Q
Friendship-closer and more intimate relationship
A
- What is friendship?
- Damon (1977) taking a cognitive developmental perspective, investigated children’s conceptions of friendship using children’s cognitions/reflections
20
Q
Damon’s ages and stages
A
- 4-7 years Level 1: Temporary relationships, not taking into account the other’s personal traits. Will play with any available playmate
- 8-10 years Level 2: Mutual sharing, give-and take. Greater emphasis on relationship
- 10-15 years Level 3: Intimate, emotional relationship relies on trust
21
Q
What is special about friendship?
A
- Costin & Jones (1992) Does friendship enhance sensitivity and concern for others?
- Effects of understanding of others’ emotions - (Dunn & Cutting, 1999; Denham et al., 2002)
- Freud & Dann (1951) close peer bonds under conditions of extreme adversity
22
Q
What about friendship and specific difficulties?
A
- Fragile X – chromosomal abnormality where the X chromosome is weak, bent or broken – frequent aggressive outbursts
- Conduct Disorder & ADHD (note 50% co-morbidity) may present with a range of difficulties - ASD – lack of enjoyment of social situations
23
Q
Children in families
A
- Dunn (1996):the role of elder siblings
- Conversational processes in the family encourage ‘mind-mindedness’ discussions regarding internal feelings, states and intentions which influence the development of children’s social understanding - (Carpendale & Lewis, 2004; Meins et al., 2012)
24
Q
The importance of having a friend
A
- Deater-Deckard (2001) the importance of having at least one friend serves as:
∙ A protective factor
∙ Enhances self efficacy - However - if 2 friends engage in anti-social behaviour this increases the level of anti-social behaviour (van Goozen, 2010)
25
Q
Peer relations and later adjustment: experience of rejected children
A
- Loneliness
∙ Difficulties with initiating/sustaining interaction
∙ Fewer positive initiations
∙ Less likely to be given the benefit of the doubt
= Asher et al., 2006)
26
Q
Why do some children have difficulties with peer relations?
A
- Internal factors: cognitive development, temperament, communication skills
- External factors: social experience, parental influence, parents as role models, parental expectations, siblings
27
Q
Bullying
A
- A number of studies have shown that bullying is associated with psychosis and psychotic experiences:
∙ Trotta et al. (2013)
∙ Lataster et al. (2006) - Longitudinal research suggests link is causal:
∙ Schreier et al. (2009)
∙ Arsenault et al. (2011)
28
Q
Smailes (2015)
A
- Bullied adolescents report more psychotic experiences
- Adults who report poorer relationships with parents report more psychotic experiences
- Bullied adolescents report poor relationships with parents
- Peer relationship with parents → increased risk of being bullied → risk of psychotic experiences
29
Q
Results
A
- Maternal care may lead to bullying
∙ Though bullying leads to hallucinatory experiences and paranoid thinking - But part of the association between maternal care and PLEs is not explained by bullying
- E.g., Arsenault et al. (2011) involves 2,232 ppt’s assessed at four time-points (5 years to 12 years)
30
Q
Further research
A
- Lots of research has shown that trauma affects brain development
∙ De Bellis et al. (1999)
∙ Teicher & Samson (2013):
✳︎ Reasonably consistent reductions in volume of corpus callosum
✳︎ Teicher et al. (2010): in healthy adults, there’s an association between severity of bullying in childhood and adolescence and integrity of corpus callosum - Wright et al. (2000): people diagnosed with schizophrenia have smaller corpus callosum volumes than do controls
- Knochel et al. (2012): in healthy participants, there’s an association between corpus callosum volume and frequency of psychotic experiences
- Exposure to bullying → reduced volume of CC → risk of psychotic experiences
31
Q
The ‘populars’
A
- Girls who reach sexual maturity very early are characterised by being popular with boys but unpopular with girls
- They can be vulnerable as they may be emotionally immature and do not know how to deal with the attention from the opposite sex
- The long-term effects can include lack of self confidence
32
Q
What is Intelligence?
A
- IQ/Intelligence as an interchangeable term
- Not referring to IQ as a psychometric measure as many researchers believe that factors on intelligence tests are limited in their usefulness unless we can identify cognitive processes responsible for these factors
- We need to separate those who can do well in mental test items from those who don’t do well to determine why a child does not do well and how to help them improve
33
Q
Two types of intelligence (Cattell, 1987)
A
- Fluid intelligence - think on the spot
- Crystallized intelligence - factual knowledge
34
Q
General Intelligence (g) - Carroll (1993) three-stratum theory of intelligence
A
- Top of hierarchy if g
- Middle 8 moderately general abilities (include fluid and crystallized intelligence and more specific skills)
- Bottom many specific processes
✳︎ General intelligence influences all of the mod general abilities and both general and moderate abilities influence the specific proc
35
Q
Gardner’s (1993) Model
A
- Linguistic – language & communication
- Logical understanding
- Spatial ability
- Musical talent
- Natural intelligence
- Body/Kinesthetic – physical & feeling
- Intra-personal – own emotions
- Inter-personal – emotions of other
36
Q
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
A
- Sternberg’s (1997, 2001, 2002) tri-archic theory of successful intelligence identified 3 broad, interacting categories:
1. Analytical intelligence (information processing)
2. Creative intelligence (novel problem solving)
3. Practical intelligence (applying intelligence in everyday skills)
37
Q
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
A
- Goleman (1996) defines EI as the ability to recognise, understand and manage our own emotions and to recognise, understand and influence the emotions of others
- Important in leadership EI has five main elements: self-awareness; self-regulation; motivation; empathy & social skills
- Fosters effective working relationships
38
Q
Measuring intelligence
A
- Observable behaviour
- Tests developed to measure intelligence at different ages (2-7 years)
- WISC Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children (sub tests to measure verbal and performance skills)
- Original version Wechsler (1949)
- Numerous revisions and updated version since
39
Q
HOME (home observation for measurement of the environment) - (Bradley & Caldwell, 1984)
A
- Emotional & verbal responsivity of mother
- Avoidance of Restriction and Punishment
- Organisation of Temporal and Physical Environment
- Provision of appropriate Play Materials
- Maternal involvement with Child
- Opportunity for variety of Daily Stimulation
40
Q
IQ scores as predictors
A
- Predicts:
►Academic success (Geary, 2005)
►Economic success (Scgnudt & Hunter, 2004)
►Occupational success (Ceci, 1993)
✳︎ So, in that sense it ‘predicts’ your future (Forbes, 2015) and it can predict your risk of death (Resnick, 2017)
41
Q
Flynn Effect: rise in IQ 1942-1980?
A
IQ is rising in the lower part of the IQ score distribution. Factors such as health care, education, nutrition.
42
Q
Schooling
A
- How well educated are we? ✳︎We can pass exams ✳︎We can gain UCAS points ✳︎But how important is this? ✳︎What are our skills? ✳︎What is successful intelligence? - Does University prepare you for work? ✳︎Transferrable skills ✳︎Know your skill-set ✳︎Make the most of opportunities
43
Q
Piaget (1896-1980)
A
- Cognitive Developmental Theory
- Children actively construct cognitive structures
- Children move through 4 stages – invariant and universal (notes age range)
►Sensorimotor: birth – 2 years
►Preoperational: 2-7 years
►Concrete Operational: 7-11 years
►Formal Operational: 11 years + - Piagetian tasks: object permanence, conservation
44
Q
Piaget - 3 Basic Components
A
- Schema
- Adaptation processes of equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation (which enable learning and transition of stages)
- 4 stages of development
45
Q
Vygotsky (1896-1934)
A
- The socio-cultural context
- These are the physical, social, cultural, economic and historical circumstances of the child’s life
- This sociocultural context influences every aspect of the child’s life
- Vygotsky agreed with Piaget - children are active in their own development
- However, Vygotsky viewed development as a socially mediated process, in which children depend on others, in order to develop new ideas and understanding
46
Q
Vygotsky: Social Cognitive Theory
A
- Conducted research during the 1920’s & 30’s, his writings were banned in the Soviet Union in 1936 and only became available in the west in the 1960’s
- Studied development focusing on the social and cultural context
- Three basic components
1. ZPD
2. Scaffolding
3. Language
47
Q
- Zone Proximal Development (ZPD)
A
- The ZPD is where sensitive instruction should be aimed (scaffolding)
- This is where new cognitive growth can be expected to occur
48
Q
- Scaffolding
A
- More knowledgeable others (MKO) provide scaffolds so that the learner can accomplish certain tasks they would otherwise not be able to accomplish on their own
- The goal is for the MKO to be less involved as the student develops the necessary skills
