Developmental Psychology

Question 1

What is development?

Answer 1

The relatively permanent changes in a person’s cognition, emotional, social and physical characteristics over a lifespan.

Question 2

Name the 4 main theorists who studied developmental psychology and their theories.

Answer 2

• Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
• Erikson’s Stage Theory of Identity
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Question 3

What is a stage theory?

Answer 3

A theory that divides development into distinct stages that are characterised by qualitative differences in behaviour. These stages are experienced in a sequential order (a person cannot get to the last stage without passing the previous stages).

Question 4

Define cognitive development.

Answer 4

Relatively enduring changes in a person’s mental abilities (e.g. problem-solving, reasoning, memory, learning and perception)

Question 5

What is the main assumption of Piaget’s theory?

Answer 5

That the driving force of cognitive development is one wanting to make sense of the world.

Question 6

What is a schema?

Answer 6

A mental idea of an aspect of the physical world and how to act on it. Schemata develop through a child’s experience and adaptation to their environment.

Question 7

Compare assimilation and accommodation.

Answer 7

Assimilation involves interpreting information and making it part of a pre-existing schema while accommodation involves changes in a person’s pre-existing schema to account for new information that does not fit the original schema (this process is more complex than assimilation).

Question 8

What is the first stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 8

Sensori-motor Stage (0-2 years) -

• learn about the world though sensory experiences and movement
• most behaviour is reflexive
• develop object permanence at approx. 8 months (the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen or heard)

Question 9

What is the second stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 9

Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years) -
AGES 2-4 - symbolic thinking - children can use symbols (e.g. words and pictures) to represent objects that are not present
- animism - belief that inanimate objects are real and have consciousness
AGES 4-7 - can only focus on one aspect at a time (centration)
- egocentrism - ability to only perceive the world from their own viewpoint
- reversibility - do not have the ability to mentally perform a series of events backwards to their starting point

Question 10

What is the third stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 10

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

• mental operations can be applied to concrete objects/events that are immediately present
• have conservation - understanding that if nothing is added or taken away, the object must be the same
• classification (ability to categorise objects and events based on similarities)
• seriation (ability to put objects in order in respect to a quality)

Question 11

What is the fourth stage of Piaget’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 11

Formal Operational Stage (11 years +)
-develop abstract thoughts with imagined realities and symbols
can solve hypothetical problems through deductive reasoning (uses logical rules to draw conclusions)
comprehend distance and time e.g. understand how long ago 200 was
understand fairness, and ideologies e.g. sexism, racism
idealistic thinking - start to realise desirable characteristics about themselves and compare themselves to others

Question 12

What was Piaget’s test for object permanence?

Answer 12

Blanket and Ball Study (1963) -
Aim: to investigate the age that children develop object permanence.
Procedure: Piaget hid a toy under a blanket in front of the child and observed whether or not the child looked for it. Searching for the toy was evidence of object permanence.
Findings: Only the children of a minimum age of 8 months searched for the ball
Conclusion: Children acquire object permanence at 8 months as they can form a mental representation of the idea in their minds.

Question 13

What was Piaget’s test for egocentrism?

Answer 13

Piaget’s 3 Mountain Task (1956) -
Aim: To investigate whether children under the age of 7 can understand that others see the world differently to them.
Procedure: Children aged 4-8 were shown a mountain scene on a tabletop that they could walk around. They sat on one side while being shown 10 pictures of different views of the model. A doll was also placed on the opposite side of the model and they had to choose the photo that depicted what the doll would see.
Findings: 4 year olds chose their own view, 6 year olds showed some ability to see a perspective besides their own but made mistakes while 7-8 year olds could choose the perspective of the doll.
Conclusion: Children younger than 7 are still egocentric and fail to understand that there are different perspectives of the world besides their own.

Question 14

What was Piaget’s test for reaching the formal operational stage?

Answer 14

Pendulum Task (1958) -
Aim: To determine whether a child had reached the formal operational stage.
Procedure: Children were asked which factor had the greatest effect on the speed of the swimming pendulum (length of the string, weight of the pendulum or force of the push). The children had a pendulum where they could change these variables.
Findings: Older children determined that length had the greatest impact by changing one variable at a time in a systematic way while younger children typically changed multiple variables at the same time, meaning they did not reach the solution.
Conclusion: Children who determined that length had the greatest effect were in the formal operation stage as they had the ability to systematically reason by changing one factor at a time.

Question 15

Evaluate Piaget’s theory.

Answer 15

(+) Has had a significant impact on psychology and influenced research on the way children think and learn

(+) Research has supported Piaget’s observations on the sequences of cognitive development and the notion that cognitive abilities occur across cultures

(-) Conducted cognitive tests and observations on his own children so methodology is questioned, lacks ecological validity as it was tested in laboratory conditions instead of real world scenarios and the sample was a small group of children of well-educated upper-class professionals from Western cultures (findings are ungeneralisable)


(-) Siegal demonstrated a lack of internal validity (construct validity) in Piaget’s experimentation instead proposing children’s inability to conserve is more based on language used by the adult administering the test.

Question 16

What are the main assumptions of Erikson’s theory?

Answer 16

That identity formation (development of a person’s long-lasting personality characteristics) is a lifelong process that occurs through cognitive processes and social experiences (crises) at different stages of a person’s life.

Question 17

According to Erikson, what is a psychosocial crisis and what were his ideas regarding crises?

Answer 17

A personal conflict that acts as a turning point in development. According to Erikson, every person experiences 8 psychosocial crises in a sequential order with each crisis having two opposing outcomes. Successful development in a certain stage occurs when the stage is resolved through a healthy balance between both outcomes (favouring the positive one), and the resolutions of these crises shapes one’s personality formation.

Question 18

What is the first stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 18

Trust vs Mistrust (12-18 months)
Infants depend on others (mainly parents) for food and comfort and must trust that they will provide these. If these needs are consistently met, children will view the world as safe and predictable, developing trust for others. If a caregiver provides inadequate or inconsistent care, the child will feel like they cannot trust others.

Question 19

What is the second stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 19

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (18 months-3 years)
Toddlers try to establish autonomy (ability to act independently and feel self-reliance) through learning to walk, talk and use the toilet. Successful resolution of this stage allows children to feel confident in their ability to control their body, behaviour and environment (occurs when parents encourage independence e.g. choosing own clothes and toys). When children are controlled or criticised in their attempts to become autonomous, they begin to doubt their own abilities and thus, become dependent on others.

Question 20

What is the third stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 20

Initiative vs Guilt (3-5 years)
Children develop initiative (ability to plan, think for oneself and act with purpose) as their social and motor skills develop. Children who are given freedom during play are likely to resolve this crisis and are able to lead others. Children who are discouraged when they self-initiate activities are likely to feel guilty.

Question 21

What is the fourth stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 21

Industry vs Inferiority (5-12 years)
Children begin to become productive members of society (e.g. by going to school). Children who are praised by parents and teachers for their industry/work will feel pride and competence in their skills, while children whose efforts to be industrious are put down do not resolve this conflict, resulting in feelings of inferiority.

Question 22

What is the fifth stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 22

Identity vs Role Confusion (12-18 years)
This stage involves combining the resolutions of earlier conflicts to develop a sense of identity (overall image humans have of themselves). Adolescents think about how others view them and compare their ideals (e.g. ideal family and society) to their own lives. Successful resolution results in a person knowing who they are, who they will be in the future and their values. Unsuccessful resolution may lead to confusion (characterised by a lack of purpose, indecision and avoidance of commitment).

Question 23

What is the sixth stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 23

Intimacy vs Isolation (18-25 years)
Builds on the previous stage as a person cannot have intimacy without an established self of identity (e.g. knowing what they like and don’t like). People explore personal relationships in this stage, with successful resolution meaning a person can form intimate, long-lasting relationships. If a person does not have a strong sense of self, they will find it hard to develop intimacy, causing them to feel isolated or develop shallow relationships.

Question 24

What is the seventh stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 24

Generativity vs Stagnation (25-65 years)
People become focused on needs beyond their own and try to contribute to society (e.g. through their occupation or by having children). This stage is successfully resolved when adults feel they have left a legacy for the future, and unsuccessful resolution results in stagnation (a lack of personal growth or concern with the interests of society).

Question 25

What is the eighth stage of Erikson’s theory (mention age and characteristics of stage)?

Answer 25

Integrity vs Despair (65 years +)
People reflect on their lives and determine if they view their life with a sense of achievement and satisfaction (integrity). If they cannot reflect on their life with fulfilment, and instead feel disappointment and regret towards their life choices, they do not successfully resolve the crisis and feel despair.

Question 26

Evaluate Erikson’s theory.

Answer 26

(+) One of the first developmental theories to address lifelong development, as opposed to solely studying child devilment like previous theories
(-) Deterministic - the first 4 stages of the theory assume that the individual has very little control over their development and that it is solely dependent on others, such as parents and teachers
(-) Erikson based his findings on case studies - meaning his assumptions may lack population validity

Question 27

Define morality.

Answer 27

A system of behaviour about what constitutes right and wrong based on empathy and reasoning.

Question 28

What were Kohlberg’s assumptions about moral development?

Answer 28

Kohlberg’s theory assumes that as people develop intellectually, they pass through 6 different stages of development (2 stages in 3 basic levels of thinking) that change their responses towards moral dilemmas over their lifespan. Like Piaget, Kohlberg believed that development was motivated by a need to make sense of one’s environment, which results in children looking to adults and institutions (e.g. parents, schools, peer groups etc.) for understanding about what is right and wrong.

Question 29

What was the scenario Kohlberg used to determine the moral stage an individual had reached?

Answer 29

Heinz’ Dilemma: A woman is suffering from a rare form of cancer but doctors say a drug could save her. The drug is sold for $4000 but costs $400 to make. The woman’s husband, Heinz went to everyone he knew for money, but only raised half the amount. He asked the druggist for a discount if he could pay him back but the doctor refused. Should Heinz steal the drug for his wife? Peoples’ reasoning for their answers allowed Kohlberg to identify 6 stages that differed in the way they view moral behaviour.

Question 30

What are the 3 levels of moral thinking Kohlberg proposed?

Answer 30

Pre-conventional (stages 1 and 2)
- moral reasoning is guided by self-interest, and right and wrong are determined by whether a person is punished or rewarded for behaviour (egocentric view)
Conventional (stages 3 and 4)
- moral reasoning is shaped by internalised expectations from society and role models regarding right and wrong (concrete thinking)
Post-conventional (stages 5 and 6)
- moral reasoning is guided by one’s personal set of ethics (requires abstract thinking) - only 10-15 % of people reach this stage according to Kohlberg

Question 31

Outline the first stage of Kohlberg’s theory (mention name, description and answers to Heinz Dilemma).

Answer 31

Punishment and Obedience Orientation - Children associate moral behaviour with avoiding punishment and obey authority for their individual benefit.
- answer to Heinz’ Dilemma: Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because he will go to jail OR Heinz should steal the drug because if his wife dies, he’ll get in trouble

Question 32

Outline the second stage of Kohlberg’s theory (mention name, description and answers to Heinz Dilemma).

Answer 32

Individualism and Exchange - Moral behaviour focuses on personal gain - children obey rules when it benefits them, and they recognise the interests of others but only act on them if these interests align with their own
- answer to Heinz’ Dilemma: Heinz should steal the drug because he will be happier if he saves his wife

Question 33

Outline the third stage of Kohlberg’s theory (mention name, description and answers to Heinz Dilemma).

Answer 33

Interpersonal Concordance - People conform to internalised societal rules which act as standards of moral behaviour (moral behaviour is behaviour that helps or pleases others)
- answer to Heinz’ Dilemma: Heinz should steal the drug because his wife expects him to OR Heinz should not steal the drug because if he does, he will be viewed as a bad person even though the druggist is being heartless

Question 34

Outline the fourth stage of Kohlberg’s theory (mention name, description and answers to Heinz Dilemma).

Answer 34

Maintaining the Social Order Orientation - Moral reasoning is guided by social rules and one’s conscience (concerns a person ‘doing their duty’ in society). Social rules are blindly obeyed.
- answer to Heinz’ Dilemma: Heinz should steal the drug because it is his duty to look after his wife OR Heinz should not because it violates the laws of society

Question 35

Outline the fifth stage of Kohlberg’s theory (mention name, description and answers to Heinz Dilemma).

Answer 35

Social Contract and Individual Rights - Person becomes aware that laws are made in the best interest of society as a whole, but may work against some individuals (what is legally right doesn’t always equate to morality)
- answer to Heinz’ Dilemma: Heinz should steal the drug because everyone has the right to live, regardless of the law OR he should not steal because the druggist has a right to fair compensation and Heinz should not take the law into his own hands

Question 36

Outline the sixth stage of Kohlberg’s theory (mention name, description and answers to Heinz Dilemma).

Answer 36

Universal Ethical Principles - People develop their own morals which apply to everyone (e.g. justice and equality) and are part of a person’s conscience. These ultimately decide what is morally right and may contradict societal laws. People at this stage are prepared to defend their morals and face the consequences even if it means going agains society
- answer to Heinz’ Dilemma: Heinz should steal the drug as a saving a life has more fundamental value than profit OR He should not steal the drug as his love for his wife is not more important than the lives of others that could benefit from the drug

Question 37

How did Kohlberg empirically study moral development?

Answer 37

Aim: To investigate the development of an individual’s moral reasoning through different age groups.
Procedure: Kohlberg conducted a cross-sectional study on 72 Chicago boys aged 10-16. The study went over 20 years and involved Kohlberg asking the boys a series of hypothetical moral dilemmas (e.g. Heinz’ Dilemma) where they had to justify their responses. The boys’ answers were followed up at 3 year intervals.
Findings: Kohlberg found that as people got older, their responses increased in complexity.
Conclusion: Kohlberg concluded that people pass through 6 developmental stages that focus on different moral aspects as a child develops intellectually. As people develop through the stage, their moral focus moves away from the individual and towards society

Question 38

Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory.

Answer 38

(-) biased sample - the sample consisted of all males, meaning that it only reflects a male idea of morality (Gillian argued that this theory emphasises justice over compassion) and that findings lack generalisability to females.
(-) lacks ecological validity - the moral dilemmas (e.g. involving marriage and stealing drugs) are unfamiliar to the adolescent sample and does not mimic their everyday life, meaning they would know how they would behave if placed in the hypothetical situations.
(-) cultural bias - all of Kohlberg’s stages reflect what Western society deems moral and does not account for the morals of collectivist cultures
(-) poor research study - did a cross sectional study by interviewing children of different ages (this makes the Cohort Effect an extraneous variable as the conditions of different generations may affect their morals). Colby conducted a longitudinal study on his theory.
(-) debate as to whether or not there are distinct moral stages - moral behaviour is argued to be context-dependent cannot be determined by general rules. Rest (1979) found that 1 in 14 people went backwards in the stages
(-) moral judgement may not equate to moral behaviour
overall limitation - empirical evidence shows that individuals are more likely to use intuition about what is right instead of reasoning to underpin all moral behaviour

Question 39

Choose any two stages from Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development. For each stage compare and explain the relationship between moral reasoning + congitive development in childhood and adolescence (4 marks)

Answer 39

Children in Kohlberg’s pre-conventional level are unable to consider multiple perspectives in their moral reasoning, which is similar to Piaget’s Pre-Operational level. This is because children in the pre-operational stage are egocentric, meaning they have an inability to perceive the world from another’s perspective.
People in Kohlberg’s post-conventional level use self-chosen principles to guide morals because they possess the ability to think beyond their immediate situation and apply universal morals to society as a whole. This is similar to Piaget’s Formal Operational stage where adolescents are able to use abstract thinking to imagine hypothetical situations and think about universal ideologies such as racism and sexism.

Question 40

With reference to an example, discuss how Kohlberg’s theory has been found to be culturally biased.

Answer 40

It is argued that Kohlberg’s moral dilemma’s fail to account for differences in morals between cultures. Richard Shweder conducted a case study on a Hindu Orthodox teacher who was presented with a version of Heinz’ Dilemma. Since Hindu Dharma (morals) prohibit stealing under any circumstances, which would always put him at the conventional level. This shows that Kohlberg’s dilemmas only considers Western morals and does not consider morals from other cultures/religions