Developmental Key Terms Flashcards
Nature vs Nurture
Nature suggests that behaviours are predetermined by biological factors like genetics and brain structure. Chomsky.
Nurture suggests that behaviours are determined by situational, environmental and external stimuli, as well as early childhood experiences. Skinner, Bruner (tabula rasa) and Vygotsky.
Continuity vs Discontinuity
Continuity suggests that development occurs over time as a maturation process. Atchley’s continuity theory for example.
Discontinuity suggests that development occurs in stages. Piaget is most notable.
Nomothetic vs Ideographic
Nomothetic looks at group behaviours as a whole and patterns of behaviours in communities etc. More scientific- quantitative. Lack of knowledge about individualistic characteristics.
Ideographic looks specifically at individual behaviours and unique patterns of behaviour. Qualitative and subjective. Lack of generalisability.
Stability vs Change
Is development constant and permanent or can we alter?
Genie vs Jim
Sensitive vs Critical periods
Sensitive period where sensory information processing is enhanced for development. Development is enriched in this period, but after this period people can still develop. Jim.
Critical period is a period where sensory information processing is necessary for development. After this period, development can no longer occur. Genie.
Typical vs Atypical
Typical describes when a child develops in a predictable way based off certain time periods and steps.
Atypical development describes when a child develops unique skills or develops at differing rates and develops differing skills than the norm.
Naturalistic Observation
Observing behaviours in an environment where the behaviour would usually occur.
Strengths- high ecological validity, if participants are unaware they are being observed, behaviours may have more internal validity, as lack of observer bias and social desirability bias.
Limitations- extraneous variables may interrupt internal validity. Ethical issues if participants are unaware of observation. If they find out they are being observed they might change behaviours making them artificial and not naturally occurring.
Structured Observation
Standardised and artificial method of observing a particular behaviour.
Strengths- standardisation = replicability = high external reliability. No extraneous variable interrupting internal validity. Can gain informed consent and provide a debrief. Objective so easy to analyse.
Limitations- Social desirability bias and lack of ecological validity.
Psychophysiological Testing
Testing aspects like blood pressure and heart rate.
Strengths- objective measuring, quantitative, insight into unconscious processes, non-invasive, monitors changes.
Limitations- confounding variables like environmental factors, state vs trait differences (temporary and stable differences), limited to observable, lack of population validity.
Microgenetic design
Studying particular skills and traits over a short period of time. Studies as the changes occur. Trying to understand the dynamics of the change. Usually involves repeated measures.
Piaget’s Theory
A theory of cognitivism. Suggests that the understanding of children is the most important to their development. Children cannot develop unless they have an understanding of the world around them. Used a series of standardised assessments, but had sample bias. Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.
Sensorimotor Stage
0-2 years
Developing basic cognitive abilities through interactions with the environment around them. Concept of object permanence- objects exist even when we cannot see them. Begin to learn cause and effect relationships.
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years
Children begin to think symbolically and engage in the function of imagination. Thinking is limited by egocentrism. They have a lack of understanding of conservation and cannot multitask.
Concrete Operational Stage
7-11 years
Children develop the ability to think logically about the real world. However, thinking is still concrete. Cannot think abstractly or hypothetically about experiences they have not personally experienced.
Formal Operational Stage
12 and onwards
Can think abstractly and logically about concepts, plans for the future, solve complex problems, and they can consider hypothetical scenarios. More sophistication and problem solving abilities.
Schemas
Cognitive ways of organising sensory information into categories so they are easy to interpret and understand.
Mechanisms of Change
Key ideas in Piaget’s theory:
Adaptation:
Assimilation- adding to understanding
Accommodation- altering understanding
Equilibrium- A state of consistency, stability and balance in a child’s understanding of the world. When children can make sense of new experiences using their existing knowledge (schemas).
Disequilibrium: new information causes confusion and imbalance. New information challenges existing schemas.
Vygotsky
Interactionist theorist.
Focuses on the importance of interactions with caregivers. Suggests that children cannot reach their full potential without a more knowledgeable other. When interacting with a more knowledgeable other, a zone of proximal development occurs which helps and guides children in development to help reach their full potential.
Modelling
Individuals learn through observation and imitation of role models. Bandura. Behaviourism.
Scaffolding
Bruner- interactionism.
Caregivers scaffold children which includes encouragement and demonstration and helping children to fulfill different aspects of development. Helps children to accomplish tasks that they cannot do independently yet.
Information Processing Theory
Development is a general process of maturation. Suggests that thought processes are all alike at all ages. But the extent is variant according to acquired knowledge and experience.
Maturation
Natural biological development that makes complex thinking possible as child grows.
Myelination
Process of coating nerve fibres with myelin which facilitates development of cognitive thinking and enhances it. Speeds up communication around the brain.
Executive Functions
Set of mental, cognitive abilities that help an individual to plan, organise, judge, problem solve and make decisions. Key parts include inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. It is integral.
Case’s Neo-Piagetian Theory
Agrees with Piaget’s steplike stages and that the more experienced you are, the more sophisticated. But, it goes deeper and explains how/why changes occur. Executive Functioning is a major component of this theory.
Talks of the Mind Staircase: 4 stages of cognitive structures that explain cognitive development:
- Sensorimotor structures: sensory input and physical actions.
- Interrelational structures: internal representations
- Dimensional structures: simple transformations of internal representations
- Vectorial structures: complex transformations of internal representations
Mechanisms of Change in Information Processing Theories
Brain Maturation: Improvements in efficiency of thought and readiness for change
Stages represented by central conceptual structures:
Help explain how people grow and develop (mechanism of change). They guide how we interpret the world, solve problems, and understand experiences.
- Numerical Frameworks
- Social Structures
- Spatial structures
Horizontal Déclage
Term from Piaget’s theory that suggests that children develop cognitive skills at different rates within a stage. Touches on individual differences slightly taking on an ideographic approach. But the overall theory is very nomothetic and looks at children as a whole.
Prefrontal Cortex
Centre of many cognitive processes like attention, inhibition and emotions.
Dorsolateral (in prefrontal cortex)
On-line processing, integration of information, inhibition, working memory, abstract thinking, planning.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex
Emotional/motivational experiences, error detection, inhibition.
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Impulse control, monitoring behaviour, socially appropriate responses.
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
Heteronomous Morality- could be classed as moral realism. Age 4-7. Sense of morality is governed by external forces. Rules are created by authority figures and must be followed this is called immanent justice.
Autonomous Morality- sense of morality is self-governed. Rules can sometimes be adapted. Fairness is considering the needs and feelings of others. Harm can be accidental.
Morality
A system of principles that guide behaviour. It underpins what is right and what is wrong, as well as concepts of honesty, fairness, justice and respect for others.
