Developmental Key Terms Flashcards
Nature vs Nurture
Nature suggests that behaviours are predetermined by biological factors like genetics and brain structure. Chomsky.
Nurture suggests that behaviours are determined by situational, environmental and external stimuli, as well as early childhood experiences. Skinner, Bruner (tabula rasa) and Vygotsky.
Continuity vs Discontinuity
Continuity suggests that development occurs over time as a maturation process. Atchley’s continuity theory for example.
Discontinuity suggests that development occurs in stages. Piaget is most notable.
Nomothetic vs Ideographic
Nomothetic looks at group behaviours as a whole and patterns of behaviours in communities etc. More scientific- quantitative. Lack of knowledge about individualistic characteristics.
Ideographic looks specifically at individual behaviours and unique patterns of behaviour. Qualitative and subjective. Lack of generalisability.
Stability vs Change
Is development constant and permanent or can we alter?
Genie vs Jim
Sensitive vs Critical periods
Sensitive period where sensory information processing is enhanced for development. Development is enriched in this period, but after this period people can still develop. Jim.
Critical period is a period where sensory information processing is necessary for development. After this period, development can no longer occur. Genie.
Typical vs Atypical
Typical describes when a child develops in a predictable way based off certain time periods and steps.
Atypical development describes when a child develops unique skills or develops at differing rates and develops differing skills than the norm.
Naturalistic Observation
Observing behaviours in an environment where the behaviour would usually occur.
Strengths- high ecological validity, if participants are unaware they are being observed, behaviours may have more internal validity, as lack of observer bias and social desirability bias.
Limitations- extraneous variables may interrupt internal validity. Ethical issues if participants are unaware of observation. If they find out they are being observed they might change behaviours making them artificial and not naturally occurring.
Structured Observation
Standardised and artificial method of observing a particular behaviour.
Strengths- standardisation = replicability = high external reliability. No extraneous variable interrupting internal validity. Can gain informed consent and provide a debrief. Objective so easy to analyse.
Limitations- Social desirability bias and lack of ecological validity.
Psychophysiological Testing
Testing aspects like blood pressure and heart rate.
Strengths- objective measuring, quantitative, insight into unconscious processes, non-invasive, monitors changes.
Limitations- confounding variables like environmental factors, state vs trait differences (temporary and stable differences), limited to observable, lack of population validity.
Microgenetic design
Studying particular skills and traits over a short period of time. Studies as the changes occur. Trying to understand the dynamics of the change. Usually involves repeated measures.
Piaget’s Theory
A theory of cognitivism. Suggests that the understanding of children is the most important to their development. Children cannot develop unless they have an understanding of the world around them. Used a series of standardised assessments, but had sample bias. Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational.
Sensorimotor Stage
0-2 years
Developing basic cognitive abilities through interactions with the environment around them. Concept of object permanence- objects exist even when we cannot see them. Begin to learn cause and effect relationships.
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years
Children begin to think symbolically and engage in the function of imagination. Thinking is limited by egocentrism. They have a lack of understanding of conservation and cannot multitask.
Concrete Operational Stage
7-11 years
Children develop the ability to think logically about the real world. However, thinking is still concrete. Cannot think abstractly or hypothetically about experiences they have not personally experienced.
Formal Operational Stage
12 and onwards
Can think abstractly and logically about concepts, plans for the future, solve complex problems, and they can consider hypothetical scenarios. More sophistication and problem solving abilities.
Schemas
Cognitive ways of organising sensory information into categories so they are easy to interpret and understand.
Mechanisms of Change
Key ideas in Piaget’s theory:
Adaptation:
Assimilation- adding to understanding
Accommodation- altering understanding
Equilibrium- A state of consistency, stability and balance in a child’s understanding of the world. When children can make sense of new experiences using their existing knowledge (schemas).
Disequilibrium: new information causes confusion and imbalance. New information challenges existing schemas.
Vygotsky
Interactionist theorist.
Focuses on the importance of interactions with caregivers. Suggests that children cannot reach their full potential without a more knowledgeable other. When interacting with a more knowledgeable other, a zone of proximal development occurs which helps and guides children in development to help reach their full potential.
Modelling
Individuals learn through observation and imitation of role models. Bandura. Behaviourism.
Scaffolding
Bruner- interactionism.
Caregivers scaffold children which includes encouragement and demonstration and helping children to fulfill different aspects of development. Helps children to accomplish tasks that they cannot do independently yet.
Information Processing Theory
Development is a general process of maturation. Suggests that thought processes are all alike at all ages. But the extent is variant according to acquired knowledge and experience.
Maturation
Natural biological development that makes complex thinking possible as child grows.
Myelination
Process of coating nerve fibres with myelin which facilitates development of cognitive thinking and enhances it. Speeds up communication around the brain.
Executive Functions
Set of mental, cognitive abilities that help an individual to plan, organise, judge, problem solve and make decisions. Key parts include inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. It is integral.
Case’s Neo-Piagetian Theory
Agrees with Piaget’s steplike stages and that the more experienced you are, the more sophisticated. But, it goes deeper and explains how/why changes occur. Executive Functioning is a major component of this theory.
Talks of the Mind Staircase: 4 stages of cognitive structures that explain cognitive development:
- Sensorimotor structures: sensory input and physical actions.
- Interrelational structures: internal representations
- Dimensional structures: simple transformations of internal representations
- Vectorial structures: complex transformations of internal representations
Mechanisms of Change in Information Processing Theories
Brain Maturation: Improvements in efficiency of thought and readiness for change
Stages represented by central conceptual structures:
Help explain how people grow and develop (mechanism of change). They guide how we interpret the world, solve problems, and understand experiences.
- Numerical Frameworks
- Social Structures
- Spatial structures
Horizontal Déclage
Term from Piaget’s theory that suggests that children develop cognitive skills at different rates within a stage. Touches on individual differences slightly taking on an ideographic approach. But the overall theory is very nomothetic and looks at children as a whole.
Prefrontal Cortex
Centre of many cognitive processes like attention, inhibition and emotions.
Dorsolateral (in prefrontal cortex)
On-line processing, integration of information, inhibition, working memory, abstract thinking, planning.
Anterior Cingulate Cortex
Emotional/motivational experiences, error detection, inhibition.
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Impulse control, monitoring behaviour, socially appropriate responses.
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
Heteronomous Morality- could be classed as moral realism. Age 4-7. Sense of morality is governed by external forces. Rules are created by authority figures and must be followed this is called immanent justice.
Autonomous Morality- sense of morality is self-governed. Rules can sometimes be adapted. Fairness is considering the needs and feelings of others. Harm can be accidental.
Morality
A system of principles that guide behaviour. It underpins what is right and what is wrong, as well as concepts of honesty, fairness, justice and respect for others.
Moral Judgement Competence
The ability to make decisions about what is right and wrong and explaining why this is what you think.
Kohlberg Moral Development
Modified and expanded on Piaget. His focus was Moral Judgement Competence, therefore he furthered Piaget’s research by investigating why. Reasoning was characterised into levels and stages and these shifted with age. Pre-conventional level, conventional level and conventional level.
The Defining Issues Test
Measures Moral Development by assessing how people reason about moral dilemmas. It identifies where an individual is in their moral development based on social norms, authority, self, culture etc.
Moral Atmosphere
Overall moral climate or atmosphere of a community, culture, group etc.
Gender Biases in Kohlberg’s model
Only used boys, therefore we have no insight into moral development of girls. This is especially pertinent considering stereotypes and stigma.
Turiel’s Social Cognitive Domain Theory
Moral Development is one component of a broader social reasoning system. 3 domains of social judgement can develop independently:
- Moral Domain
- Social Conventional
- Personal Domain
Children do not just learn sense of morality from adults and authority figures, they also develop their own ideas of what is fair, just and acceptable. They can distinguish between these domains.
Syntax
Word order. How word order can convey and alter meaning.
Pragmatics
Interpretations of underlying meanings. Using context to infer behaviours and speech. Understanding the context of the speech/conversation. Different social rules and social cues govern speech.
Pre-linguistic stage
Cooing, babbling, complex babbling, first words. Practicing using vocal chords and learning communication. Learning sounds and rhythms of language through interactions with caregivers.
Two-Word Stage
18-20 months
Simple sentences, understand instructions, rapid vocab spurt up to 300 words,
PreSchool
Vocab approximately 1-2k words. Simple stories, use pronouns, temporal language, understand writing, begin to engage with phonemes.
Skinner Behaviourist Theory
Learning theory. Children learn through external stimuli. They learn through reinforcement and association. Operant and classical conditioning Watson and Raynor Little Albert Theory. Skinner box- rat.
Chomsky
Nature
Language Acquisition Device
Critical period
Poverty of stimulus- external stimuli is not sufficient enough
Virtuous errors
Piaget
Cognitivism.
Child needs to have an understanding in order to develop.
Understanding precedes development.
Vygotsky
MKO
Zone of Proximal Development
Social Constructivist
Bruner
Interactionist
Tabula rasa
Scaffolding
Empathy
Early- emotionally neutral.
Later- developed to describe how empathy is complex and multifaceted. Noticing someone elses emotional behaviour and correctly interpreting that behaviour/emotion. Affinity for or resonate with how a person feeels. Deciding upon and expressing a response.
Components of Empathy
Cognitive
- Intellectual appreciation of mental state of another.
Emotional
- response must be appropriate i.e. match it and be responsive to it. Must be directed to someone else not self.
Motivational
- we have inherent intentions and desires to relate and engage with others
Perspective Taking
Ability to understand others points of view and how they interpret and feel situations. Imagining what it would be like to be in someone else’s situation.
Theory of Mind
Ability to read between the lines and infer things from different cues. Humour, sarcasm etc. Ability to understand that other people have their own perspectives, feelings, desires and goals .
Mirror Recognition
A test of self-awareness. Used to measure whether an individual understand that they are a unique person, separate from others.
Prosocial behaviour
A behaviour that helps and prioritises others. Lee- Evaluations of Lying and Truthtelling.
Emotion Recognition
Baroncohen?
Ability to identify how someone is feeling by looking at their facial features and expression. Allows us to respond in an appropriate way.
Atypical Empathy
Disproportionate levels of empathy in an individual due to a plethora of factors such as: caregiver neglect, caregiver abuse, disrupted development. Examples: Dark Empathy individuals, psychopaths etc. Could also be due to genes- MAOMA gene mutation-warrior gene.
Dysfunctional Socialisation Effects
Infancy and childhood are critical periods for the formation of neural pathways essential for empathy development. Brain structure and maturation is very sensitive to the environment i.e. head trauma from abuse. During the first 2 years of life, synapses form for emotional and memory function and if this is disrupted this could lead to atypical empathy development.
Caregiver Neglect in Empathy Development
Can cause:
- Short term and long term cognitive and emotional deficits in development
- Attachment problems
- Social withdrawal problems
- Atrophy of neural pathways (death)
Evidence that Serotonin based medications can help to alleviate symptoms.
Caregiver Abuse
Severe cognitive and emotional deficits.
No atrophy of pathways, but instead aberrant pathways (diverging from normal).
Aggression.
Lack empathy.
Juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behaviour.
These deficits could be due to changes to the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal gland axis, as abuse is associated with HPA dysregulation and reduced hippocampal volume.
Identity First Language
A way of dehumanising an individual/ creating stigma. Instead of saying an individual with autism, they would say an autistic person. Emphasises the disorder they have as being the most pertinent aspect of their identity. Opposes the term neurodiversity.
Neurodiversity
A concept that recognises that not all people think and feel the same way. Emphasises the positives of differences and distinctions rather than disorders or deficiencies. Does not deny the challenges but instead represents them in a more optimistic way. Natural variation in the human genome.
Autism and Empathy
A neurotype associated with specific and unique challenges and strengths such as restricted or repetitive behaviours, social communication differences, sensory differences, focused interests, developmental, intellectual disability.
Whether these are classified as strengths or weaknesses is subjective.
Originally typified as having deficiencies in empathy or theory of mind. But, inconsistent research. And a big sweeping judgement that can create stigma.
Double dissociations
A concept that suggests that two mental processes are independent of each other. Two mental functions can be affected separately. In the context of autism and empathy, this would indicate that someone with autism may have issues with one aspect of empathy and have no issues with another aspect of empathy. I.e. may be able to interpret others feelings but may not be able to respond in an appropriate way. This contradicts the idea that autistic people are fundamentally deficient in empathy.
Masking & Camouflaging
When someone hides or disguises their true feelings. Masking is when someone disguises their true feelings in a social situation. Camouflaging is when someone tries to blend in and carry out and mimic behaviours that they would not usually be accustomed to doing. Very common in autistic people as a coping strategy. Can lead to terrible consequences- burnout, lack of self identity. But can help someone to feel less different and more included and welcome.
Hyper Empathy
Feeling emotions extremely deeply, not just their own but others as well. Might become directly and overwhelmingly affected by feeling others emotions even if they are not associated with the situation. Having a very sensitive emotional antenna.
Dark Empathy
Using the ability to interpret and infer and respond to people’s emotions and have empathy for others in a way to manipulate them to gain the benefits of it or to control situations. Includes the dark triad: narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
When someone believes that they are the most important. Strong sense of superiority over others. Lack of empathy. Ted bundy and jefferey dahmer.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
An individual consistently ignores and disregards the rights of others and behaves in a way that is deceitful, manipulative and harmful.
Gender Identity
Resides within the individual. Made up of multiple factors- multidimensional. Internal sense of own gender identity.
Gender Expression
The ways in which their gender identity is expressed externally and in external situations.
Kohlberg’s Gender Schema Theory
Children actively build schemas as a lens through which to view the world. They adjust their behaviour according to gender norms of culture. Children actively construct their understanding of gender and gender identity through stages.
- Gender Identity (2-3)
Learn to identify as either male or female. Beginning of understanding that they belong to one gender or another. However, they may not understand that gender is a constant. - Gender Stability (4-5)
Gender is stable over time and children begin to understand this. But they may still believe that gender can change depending on outward expressions. - Gender Constancy (6-7)
Gender is consistent across different situations and times. Even if a child wears clothes stereotypically associated with another gender, their gender does not change.
When going through these stages, children actively develop gender schemas.
Gender Schema Theory
Bem- How children learn and internalise gender roles. This shapes their understanding of what it means to be a male or female in society. Gender schemas like Kohlberg.
Outdated.
Gender Variance/ Diversity/ Non-Conformity
Identity/expression perceived outside the cultural norm. Associated with increased risk to mental health. Defined by society/culture/era and what is socially acceptable. Could develop into gender dysphoria.
Gender Dysphoria
Distinct, negative, distressing experience of the body as differing from our gendered self-image.
Gender Euphoria
Enjoyment or satisfaction caused by correspondence between person’s gender identity and gendered self-image associated with a gender other than the one assigned at birth.
Resilience
Capacity for successful adaptation and recovery in response to stressful life events. Ability to overcome and be proactive in adapting to different situations.
Myth- Human personality is mainly formed by early experiences
Idea of tabula rasa- Bruner and interactionists.
Contradicted by social constructivism- Vygotsky.
Contradicted by Piaget- cognitivism.
Contradicted by Chomsky- nativism.
Only really supported by animal research.
Myth- Mental disorders are formed in early childhood
i.e. war orphans.
But, not permanent.
No personality profile of victims of childhood abuse.
Myth- Psychotherapy depends on reconstruction of childhood experiences
Human memory is unreliable.
Emotional support is key in psychotherapy not reconstruction of childhood experiences.
Most effective therapies are based on the cause of a disorder not childhood memories.
Distress vs Eustress
Distress- negatively framed stress
Eustress- positively framed stress
HPA Axis
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Gland dysregulation due to abuse can cause deficits.
How we respond to stress. HPA axis helps us to recover from stress. Dysregulated HPA axis means you may be less resilient.
Seligman’s PERMA Model
Framework for understanding well-being. How to live a happy life and change cognitive thinking to be positive.
P- Positive Emotion
E- Engagement- fully absorbed in activities
R- Relationships- supportive ones
M- Meaning- sense of purpose
A- Accomplishment- pursue and achieve goals
Is this a way for us to train it?
PI-PE Model
Framework that suggests Personal identity and Personal environment affect how someone copes with challenges, develops and experiences happiness. Holisitic approach.
