Cognitive Key Terms

Question 1

Internal/External Attention

Answer 1

Internal Attention is a cognitive process that overlaps with other cognitive processes like memory. It is internally generated thoughts and sensations.

External Attention is attention to selection of information/stimuli in the external environment.

Question 2

Focused/Divided Attention

Answer 2

Focused Attention is the cognitive process of having all focus and attention on one stimuli. Ability to direct attention to a chosen stimuli, and maintain that focus for a period of time.

Divided Attention is the cognitive ability to direct attention to more than one stimuli.

Question 3

Dichotic Listening Paradigm

Answer 3

Used in studies like Treisman’s Attentuation Theory. Where participants are presented with 2 stimuli and they have to silmultaneously listen to them.

Question 4

Shadowing

Answer 4

A process used in Dichotic Listening Tasks whereby the participant has to copy and attend to one stimuli.

Question 5

Broadbent’s Early Selection Model

Answer 5

Broadbent’s Early Selection Model is an information processing theory. It sees the cognitive processing system as a series of channels. Humans can only process a limited amount of sensory information at one time due to an ‘attentional bottleneck’. The attentional bottleneck is the area where capacity for information is reached and it cannot keep up with the demand, therefore creates a mental blockage. When we take in external stimuli, this first registers at the buffer where it is briefly stored. Then a filter selects what is to be processed based on physical features.

Question 6

Treisman’s Attentuation Theory

Answer 6

Agrees with Broadbent’s Theory to an extent. However, instead of suggesting that when a filter does not process some stimuli and become lost, they are just attentuated (reduced). This suggests that people can still process meaning from this information.

Question 7

Resource Theory

Answer 7

Kahneman- Attention is a limited resource, it is finite. It can be directed or divided as required up to a maximum limit. This theory is based on the idea of a central processing unit which allows attention to be flexible across multiple units.

Laberge- attention is a spotlight that can be directed even without eye movement.

Question 8

Dual-Task Paradigm

Answer 8

Participants pay attention to two stimuli silmultaneously. Just like a Dichotic Listening Paradigm.

Question 9

Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory

Answer 9

Suggests that memory is directed by a central executive that assigns information to various locations. The visuospatial sketchpad is where all visual information is directed. The episodic buffer is the location where information is stored. The phonological loop contains auditory information. Suggests that working memory is multi-dimensional.

Question 10

Vigilance

Answer 10

The ability to sustain attention over periods of time.

Question 11

Working memory

Answer 11

Short lived sensory information about multiple incoming stimuli, currently activated semantic concepts. It has a limited capacity.

Question 12

Prospective memory

Answer 12

Remembering to carry out planned actions or intentions.

Question 13

Event-Based Prospective Memory

Answer 13

Remembering to carry out actions or intentions when the circumstances are right.

Question 14

Time-Based Prospective Memory

Answer 14

Remembering to carry out actions or intentions at specific times.

Question 15

Interruptions

Answer 15

Interruptions rapidly divert someone’s attention away from a stimulus. Following an interruption, we create implicit prospective memories to remember to continue with what we were originally doing. This is usually without explicit cueing or encoding.

Question 16

PAM Theory

Answer 16

Preparatory Attentional Memory Processing Theory. Successful prospective memory requires us to maintain preparatory attentional working memory response. It is not automatic and is constrained by the capacity of the working memory. Retrieval requires resource-demanding preparatory attentional processes.

Question 17

Multi-Process Theory

Answer 17

This theory suggests that event-based prospective memory involves strategic and automatic monitoring. As well as this, some intentions will be received spontaneously. Retrieval is multidimensional and event-based prospective memories can be remembered through cueing or encoding or just spontaneously.

Question 18

Autobiographical Memory

Answer 18

Memory of things that have happened in your life. These memories define our identity, connect our history to actual history and support our personal goals and intentions.

Question 19

Autonoetic Memories

Answer 19

Dimension of autobiographical memory. Memories about experience.

Question 20

Noetic memories

Answer 20

Another dimension of autobiographical memory. Factual knowledge about oneself.

Question 21

Copies

Answer 21

Another dimension. Vivid memories that contain a lot of irrelevant detail.

Question 22

Reconstructions

Answer 22

The idea that some memories are not accurate and include interpretations made with hindsight. which could influence how they’re remembered.

Question 23

Generic memories

Answer 23

Another dimension. i.e. location of family holiday.

Question 24

Field perspective

Answer 24

Remembering an event from own perspective. Observer perspective- remembering an event as if you are observing it as an outsider.

Question 25

Infantile Amnesia

Answer 25

The inability to recall autobiographical memories from early childhood.

Question 26

Reminiscence Bump

Answer 26

The inability/disproportionate ability to recall autobiographical memories from adolescence and early adulthood.

Question 27

Definitional Approach

Answer 27

The classical view. Concepts are mentally represented as definitions. It suggests that all members of a category are equally good examples of it i.e. there is not one that should be deemed more representative or less representative.

Question 28

Prototype Approach

Answer 28

Suggests that in a category there are members that are more representative than others and are deemed the prototype of the category. All about typicality which is defined as the extent to which an object is representative of a category. If the member is central it is typical. And if it is peripheral it is atypical in the category. I.e. Apple would be the typical prototype in the fruits category, as it is the most common when bringing up fruit. A tomato may by atypical.

Question 29

Exemplar Approach

Answer 29

Concepts are represented by stored examples alone and there is no typicality/prototype. There is no member that is deemed more representative than another. Emphasises the variability found in all categories. Cognitively, people can silmultaneously apply both the exemplar approach and the prototype approach.

Question 30

Theory/Knowledge Based Approach

Answer 30

Necessary, as probalistic approaches do not address or explain how people create goal-derived (include ad hoc categories and categories that were once ad hoc but have now become common through frequent use) or ad-hoc categories (novel categories constructed spontaneously to achieve goals).

Semantic Network Model- Each concept of a category is represented as a node. These nodes are linked by pathways. Memory retrieval involves spreading activation.

Question 31

Typicality

Answer 31

How representative a concept is of its category.

Question 32

Family Resembelance

Answer 32

Idea that concepts can be structured in overlapping similarity patterns. Sharing properties.

Question 33

Basic level of categorisation

Answer 33

Superordinate- overarching category i.e. furniture. Basic- a category within it i.e. chair. Subordinate- specific i.e. armchair.

Question 34

Hub and Spoke Model

Answer 34

A way to explain how the brain cognitively organises and stores information. It has a central hub which is connected to multiple spokes. The hub represents general, abstract knowledge and concepts. The spokes represent specific details related to that concept.

Question 35

Dual-Process Theory in Judgement and Decision Making

Answer 35

Two Systems.
System 1 includes automatic and fast processing. Triggers the use of heuristics (mental shortcuts or simple strategies that help people make decisions and problem solve). Effortless and implicit processing that is affected by emotions.

System 2 is slow and serial processing which uses rules and algorithms. It is effortful and uses explicit processing with deliberate and controlled processes.

Our brain uses these systems. Suggests our ability to make decisions and judgements is multidimensional and complex.

Question 36

Bounded Rationality

Answer 36

We aim to solve problems, make decisions and create judgements, however we are bounded by our cognitive limitations and environment. Thus, we are rational within our capacity and limitations.

Question 37

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 37

Mental shortcut we use to make quick judgements about something based on how closely it matches our ideas and stereotypes about that thing. Helps us make fast preconceptions, but can be wrong, as stereotypes are just constructions that are not necessarily always true.

Question 38

Conjunction Fallacy

Answer 38

Tendency to judge the probability of a conjunction of 2 events occurring together than just one of them.

Question 39

Causality Heuristic

Answer 39

A mental shortcut used to quickly figure out what causes something to happen, even when we do not have enough proof.

Question 40

Availability heuristic

Answer 40

mental shortcut where we judge how likely something is to happen based on how easily examples come to mind from the long term memory.

Question 41

Fast and Frugal Heuristics

Answer 41

Making quick snap mental judgements and decisions. No need to overthink. Saves cognitive energy.

Question 42

Take the best heuristic

Answer 42

Decision making shortcut where we decide on something based on the best option available to us, without considering all options. But this leads to severe biases and a failure to process all information provided.

Question 43

Recognition Heuristic

Answer 43

Making a mental shortcut decision based on whether we recognise it or not.

Question 44

Prospect Theory

Answer 44

How we make decisions about risks, uncertainty and gains. We don’t always make decisions based on logic or the final outcome, but rather how we perceive losses and gains. Loss aversion plays a big part in this theory. People are more sensitive and worried about losses. Losses feel worse than gains feel good. Sunk-Cost Fallacy also plays a part where people carry out an act even though it has been unsuccessful because resources have been invested. Framing Effect is very pertinent in this theory too. Situational variables can have major impacts on decision making.

BUT oversimplified theory- what about individual differences and individual factors that drive this.

Question 45

Blood Brain Barrier

Answer 45

Alcohol can easily pass through the blood brain barrier and this can directly impact brain functioning. Alcohol increases inhibition, as it imitates GABA neurotransmitters. So, GABA receptors become activated and this reduces neuronal excitation and increases inhibition. Blocks the brain’s ability to send and receive chemical messages. Alcohol has many affects on an individual:
Impairs and slows down brain activity, impairs memory, coordination and decision making. Chronic drinking can damage the brain and weaken the blood-brain barrier.

Question 46

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Answer 46

A disorder that affects babies whose mothers drank while pregnant. Damages the developing brain. Causes impaired neurogenesis, myelination, structural issues and alcohol induced aptosis. Also, impaired plasticity.

hard to diagnose though, as relies on self-reports from mother. and sometimes hard to see physical signs. can be caused by other factors too like mothers nutrition.

can have major cognitive impacts: early onsent ADHD, attention deficits, less responsive to medication for this.

Question 47

Alcohol Myopia Theory

Answer 47

Mental short sightedness. Alcohol narrows our focus. This leads to poor decision making, impulsive behaviour and an inability to consider long term consequences. Neglects the bigger picture.

Question 48

State-Dependent Memory

Answer 48

Alcohol administered BEFORE encoding impairs retrieval.
Alcohol administered AFTER encoding enhances recollection.

Question 49

Alcohol-Induced Memory Blackouts

Answer 49

Instance of anterograde amnesia. A rapid spike in blood alcohol content shuts down normal processing. But, severity depends on quantiity and speed of intake. Fragmented black outs- don’t remember anything but then start to remember some things due to cueing. En bloc black outs- don’t recall everything that happened and these are not retrievable at all.

Question 50

Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 50

Alcohol-Induced memory blackouts.

Question 51

Mnemonic Devices

Answer 51

Comprise of 3 Components: organision, elaboration and mental imagery.

Question 52

Method of Loci

Answer 52

Visualise a room you are familiar with and dot various concepts around the room mentally and mentally walk through the room recalling different concepts as you go.

Question 53

Peg-word method

Answer 53

Pre-memorise a set of permanent memory pegs. Hang memories onto them.

Question 54

Link method

Answer 54

Form images you wish to rememeber and link them to each other.

Question 55

Memory Athletes

Answer 55

10 different disciplines in the world memory championships.
Used to be dominated by the British.
In 2017, 18 yr old Munkshur Narmandakh from Mongolia won and she was the first female champion. She won again in 2021. Current winner is Huang Jiyao from China.

Question 56

Visuospatial Processing

Answer 56

Brain’s ability to understand and remember where things are in space and how they relate to things and each other. How we perceive, interpret and organise visual information.

Question 57

Attentional Bias

Answer 57

Tendency to think about negative situations and stimuli instead of something neutral or positive. Can assess it through dot-probe task.

Question 58

Interpretative Bias

Answer 58

Interpreting ambiguous stimuli, events and situations as a threat. Can assess through homophone task and amiguous scenarios task.

Question 59

Combined Cognitive Bias Hypothesis

Answer 59

Different cognitive biases are interconnected. An increase in one results in an increase in another.

Question 60

Cognitive Vulnerability Bias

Answer 60

Negative life events tend to cause an increase in anxiety and depression symptoms.

Question 61

Cognitive Bias Modification

Answer 61

To establish a causal relationship between cognitive biases and depression and anxiety. Test if training can be used to reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety. Helps people to alter unhelpful negative thinking patterns. Trains brain to think differently.