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BMS 109 > Developmental Biology > Flashcards

Developmental Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Development

A

A change in structure of an organism over time

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2
Q

Regional specification

A

How a pattern appears in a previously similar population of cells e.g. body axes - anterior/posterior, ventral/dorsal and left/right

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3
Q

Morphogenesis

A

Shaping of organs and tissues in 3D that requires cell and tissue movements

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4
Q

Model organisms are studied to…

A
  • Identify genes with roles in developmental processes
  • Understand gene function
  • Provide models for human disease
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5
Q

3 fates of stem cells?

A
  • Self renew to generate new copies of themselves
  • Differentiate into a somatic cell type
  • Die by apoptosis
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6
Q

Mutations in the developing embryo can cause…

A
  • Developmental defects
  • Embryonic lethality
  • Miscarriage
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7
Q

Mutation in PAX6

A
  • Mutation in single copy of PAX6 causes Aniridia (loss of iris) in humans
  • Mutation in both copies of PAX6 causes complete loss of eyes and fatal neurological defects
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8
Q

PAX6

A
  • Codes for paired box class transcription factors
  • Function is both necessary and sufficient for eye formation in the embryo
  • PAX6 gene has been conserved from flies to mice to humans
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9
Q

Gametogenesis

A
  • Gametes are derived from germ cells which form very early in embryogenesis
  • Primordial germ cells give rise to cells that undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
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10
Q

Haploid

A

Only one copy of each chromosome

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11
Q

Diploid

A

Two copies of each chromosome

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12
Q

Sperm structure

A

Male gamete

  • Flagella to allow swimming
  • Acrosomal vesicle contains enzymes for sperm to penetrate egg
  • Lots of mitochondria to provide ATP for swimming
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13
Q

Oocyte structure

A

Female gamete

  • Large stores of maternal RNA and proteins to support development during early cleavage stages
  • Yolk which is a mixture of proteins and lipids
  • Oocytes not fully matured, they are under hormonal control in ovaries
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14
Q

Fertilisation

A
  • Binding of sperm to zona pellucida
  • Acrosomal reaction as enzymes are released from sperm head
  • Penetration of sperm through zona pellucida
  • Fusion of plasma membranes
  • Sperm nucleus enters egg cytoplasm to fuse with oocyte nucleus
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15
Q

Blocks preventing polyspermy

A

In sea urchin

  • Change in membrane potential from -ve to +ve after sperm entry
  • Cortical reaction results in formation of a fertilisation membrane and hyaline layer that blocks further sperms entering oocyte
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16
Q

Egg activation after fertilisation

A
  • When sperm nuclei enters egg there is Calcium ion release
  • Wave of Calcium across egg results in completion of meiosis, the pronuclei fuse and development begins
  • Increase in calcium is both necessary and sufficient for egg activation
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17
Q

Cleavage

A

Rapid and synchronous division of cells with no overall growth to form ball of cells - blastula

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18
Q

3 patterns of cleavage?

A
  • Holoblastic - humans
  • Meroblastic - zebrafish
  • Superficial - drosophila
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19
Q

Cell cycle in early embryo

A
  • No G phase only S and M phases
20
Q

Zygotic genome activation

A
  • During cleavage zygotic genome is transcriptionally silent and embryo uses maternal supply of nucleotides and histones to replicate DNA content
  • When these supplies run out, zygotic gene activation occurs and cell cycle slows and becomes asynchronous
21
Q

2 mechanisms how cells differentiate

A
  • Segregation of cytoplasmic content to become unequally divided between cells
  • Cell-cell signalling using signalling molecules that lead to a change in gene expression
22
Q

Mechanism of cell signalling

A
  • Signalling molecule binds to receptor
  • Intracellular transduction of signal
  • Activation of transcription factor
  • Expression of new genes
23
Q

3 Germ layers and the structures they form?

A
  • Ectoderm - skin, neural plate (neurones and glia), neural crest, placodes (inner ear, sensory ganglia)
  • Mesoderm - muscles, heart, blood, bone, cartilage
  • Endoderm - gut, pancreas, liver, lungs, pharynx, salivary glands
24
Q

3 processes of gastrulation in sea urchin?

A
  • Mesoderm cells send projections that attach to blastocele roof and pulls mesoderm and endoderm inside the embryo
  • Forms a tube through the embryo - primitive gut
  • Establishes the anteroposterior and dorsoventral axes§
25
Q

Epithelium and Mesenchyme arrangement

A
  • Epithelium - ordered

- Mesenchyme - random

26
Q

Condensation tissue rearrangement

A

Cells that are spread apart become closely packed together

27
Q

Mesenchymal to epithelial transition tissue rearrangement

A

Cells that are randomly assorted become ordered into epithelium

28
Q

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition tissue rearrangement

A

Cells that are ordered break-off to become randomly assorted mesenchyme

29
Q

Cavitation tissue rearrangement

A

Formation of an empty space surrounded by cells

30
Q

Involution tissue rearrangement

A

Tissue sheet rolls inwards to form an underlying layer via bulk movement

31
Q

Invagination tissue rearrangement

A

Epithelial sheet bends inwards to form an in-pocketing

32
Q

Epiboly tissue rearrangement

A

A sheet of cells spreads by thinning

33
Q

Convergent extension tissue rearrangement

A

Cells converge to intercalate between one another then extend in a perpendicular direction

34
Q

Neurulation

A

Formation of the neural tube

  • 2 neural plate borders move toward each other
  • Invagination of neural plate forms the neural groove
  • 2 neural folds converge to form neural tube
35
Q

Spina bifida

A

Condition that results from failure of neural tube to completely seal

36
Q

Neural crest cells

A
  • Located above the neural tube

- Give rise to melanocytes, craniofacial bone/cartilage and neurones

37
Q

Arrangement of 3 germ layers?

A
  • Ectoderm - outer layer
  • Mesoderm - middle layer
  • Endoderm - inner layer
38
Q

Drosophila

  • Advantages
  • Disadvantages
  • Useful techniques
A

Advantages:

  • Small organism
  • Short generation time
  • Large batch of embryos
  • Sequenced genome

Disadvantages:
- Small embryo

Techniques:

  • Mutagenesis
  • Transgenesis
  • Clonal analysis
39
Q

Drosophila egg chamber

A
  • Have axes when they are laid
  • Have nurse cells - make RNA and proteins for developing embryo
  • Nuclei migrate to edge of chamber to form a syncytial blastoderm
  • Small number of nuclei migrate to posterior end to form pole cells which form the germ cells
40
Q

Transplantation of pole plasm in Drosophila

A
  • Cells from posterior end of one embryo transplanted into anterior end of a second embryo
  • Cells retained pole cell functions
  • Cells are transplanted back into posterior end of a third embryo
  • Adult fly develops with germ cells with the same genotype as second embryo among its own germ cells
41
Q

Imaginal discs of drosophila egg

A

Contain cells that have been set aside to form different body parts in the adult fly

42
Q

What do mutations in the anterior of drosophila egg result in?

A

Bicoid mutant

43
Q

2 types of genes that can effect development of drosophila egg?

A
  • Maternal effect genes - determine polarity of the embryo e.g. bicoid genes in anterior of embryo
  • Zygotic genes - responsible for body plan of the embryo e.g. gap genes, pair-rule genes, segmentation genes and selector genes
44
Q

C. Elegans

  • Advantages
  • Disadvantages
  • Useful techniques
A 
Advantages:
- Small organism
- Invariant lineage 
- Short generation time 
- Sequenced genome
Disadvantages:
- Small embryo
Techniques:
- Mutagenesis 
- Cell ablation
45
Q

If anchor cells are removed in C. elegans…

A

There is no formation of vulva

46
Q

If anchor cells are mutated in C. elegans…

A

There is either no vulva or multivulva

BMS 109 (8 decks)

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