Developmental area

Question 1

Kohlberg aim

Answer 1

to investigate whether moral development happens in distinct stages and whether it is universal, building on Piaget’s theory.

Question 2

Kohlberg pre-conventional stage stage

Answer 2

Punishment Orientation: the consequence of an action determines how good or bad it is

Instrumental-relativist orientation: fairness is important as long as one’s own needs are satisfied

Question 3

Kohlberg conventional stage

Answer 3

Good boy-good girl orientation: pleasing others, behaviour judged my intention

Authority (also called law and order) orientation: following fixed rules rules, maintaining order

Question 4

Post-conventional stage

Answer 4

Social contract orientation: legal point of view, respect for process of democratic arriving at rules

Universal ethical principles: Respect for all humans, one’s own principles

Question 5

Kohlberg procedure

Answer 5

• Longitudinal study over 12 years, boys from 10, 13 and 16 tested every 3 to 4 years were 22-28 at the end of the study
  
  • Gave the males hypothetical and philosophical moral dilemmas (Heinz test) in short series in semi-structured interview
• Compared males from USA to those in Canada, the UK, Turkey and Taiwan

Question 6

Kohlberg results

Answer 6

• Cultural universal development through stages. For example, at age 10 the pre-conventional stage was most common and at age 16 stage 3 most common
• results in Mexico and Taiwan were similar, except slightly slower
• middle class children developed faster through the stages

Question 7

Kohlberg conclusions

Answer 7

• all cultures progressed through the stages through the study (some not reached final stage by the end)
• Cultural universality in the progression through stages

Question 8

Lee aims

Answer 8

to test the effect of culture on children’s moral evaluations of lying and truth telling by comparing the moral judgements of Canadian children and Chinese children.

Question 9

Lee procedure

Answer 9

laboratory experiment (snapshot) which used an independent measures design
- IVs were:
1. whether the participant heard the social story or the physical story,
2. whether the participant heard a pro-social or anti-social story,
3. the age of the children,
4. the ethnicity of the children.
- The DVs in the study were:
1. the rating given to the story character’s deed
2. the rating given to what the character said – both ratings ranged from very, very good to very, very naughty.
- Allocation to the conditions was random (social or physical story)
Children were read four scenarios with illustrations: two were prosocial and two were antisocial.

Question 10

Lee results

Answer 10

• Children were read four scenarios with illustrations: two were prosocial and two were antisocial.

F: Prosocial Behaviour/Truth-Telling Situations:
- Overall, children from both cultures rated the prosocial behaviours similarly. Canadian children at each age gave similar ratings to truth telling; however, Chinese children’s ratings became less positive as age increased.
Prosocial Behaviour/Lie-Telling Situations:
- Overall, Canadian children rated lie telling negatively, but as age increased their ratings became less negative. Overall, Chinese children’s ratings of lie telling changed from negative to positive as age increased.

Antisocial Behaviour/Truth-Telling Situations:
- Children from both cultures rated the antisocial behaviours similarly. Children from both cultures rated truth telling in this situation very positively.

Antisocial Behaviour/Lie-Telling Situations:
Both Chinese and Canadian children rated lie telling negatively in this condition. Overall, negative ratings increased with age, regardless of culture.

Question 11

Lee conclusions

Answer 11

• There is a close relationship between socio-cultural practices and moral judgements.
  Specific social and cultural norms have an impact on children’s developing moral judgements, which are modified by age and experience within a culture.

Question 12

lee section a

Answer 12

120 Chinese children, 108 Canadian children (males and females)

snapshot study

informed consent

qualitative and quantitative data

Question 13

Chaney aims

Answer 13

A pilot study to investigate if a ‘funhaler’ would increase medical compliance in children with asthma.

Question 14

Chaney procedure

Answer 14

• Funhaler - more fun than regular inhaler as it’s bright colours and has a disc and whistle which are activated when the child inhales and exhales.
  • Two matched questionnaires asked before and after the use of the funhaler was given to children to see its effects on compliance and attitudes to its use. Mainly consisted of yes/no and fixed choice questions
  • Given fun inhaler for 2 weeks
    Parents phone at random to measure the child’s usage of the inhaler, by asking if it was used the previous day

Question 15

chaney section a

Answer 15

Informed consent was gained from parents

Field experiment
32 children and their parents.

Opportunity sample of patients attending clinics in a region in Australia.

qualitative data

matched questionnaires

Question 16

chaney results

Answer 16

• 81% used funhaler compared to 59% used conventional inhaler
  
  • 73% of parents claimed they were successful in funhaler compared to 10% with conventional inhaler
  • The fun haler did arouse more suspicion in children than regular inhaler (10% from 0%)
    Parents attitude to giving their child the medication was much more positive

Question 17

chaney conclusions

Answer 17

• The fun haler was more useful in improving the compliance rates in children and thus reducing asthma attacks
  More research needed to show if results in this study will remain the same with long-term use of the fun inhaler

Question 18

Bandura aims

Answer 18

to demonstrate that if children were witnesses to an aggressive display by an adult they would imitate this aggressive behavior when given the opportunity.

Question 19

bandura procedure

Answer 19

Phase 1: Modeling
- 24 children (12M,12F) watched a male or female model behave aggressively to the ‘Bobo doll’, adults attacked the doll in some manner, Some using hammer or throwing the doll
- 24 children (12F,12M) played with Bobo in a non-aggressive, quiet manor, ignoring the doll and player with Tinker toy set
Phase 2: Aggression Arousal
- All children including control group were exposed somewhat to mild aggression arousal
- Each child taken into room to play with relatively attractive toys then told they shouldn’t play with them as they’re the best toys and should be reserved for other children
Phase 3: Imitation
- Next room contained some non-aggressive toys (like tea set or crayons) and some aggressive (dart guns or Bobo Doll)
- Child in room for 20 minutes and behaviour observed through a one way mirror in 5 second intervals, giving 240 responses for each child
Behavior that didn’t imitate model were still recorded (like punching the doll in the nose)

Question 20

bandura modelling

Answer 20

• 24 children (12M,12F) watched a male or female model behave aggressively to the ‘Bobo doll’, adults attacked the doll in some manner, Some using hammer or throwing the doll
  
  • 24 children (12F,12M) played with Bobo in a non-aggressive, quiet manor, ignoring the doll and player with Tinker toy set

Question 21

bandura aggression arousal

Answer 21

• All children including control group were exposed somewhat to mild aggression arousal
  
  • Each child taken into room to play with relatively attractive toys then told they shouldn’t play with them as they’re the best toys and should be reserved for other children

Question 22

bandura imitation

Answer 22

• All children including control group were exposed somewhat to mild aggression arousal
  
  • Each child taken into room to play with relatively attractive toys then told they shouldn’t play with them as they’re the best toys and should be reserved for other children

Question 23

bandura results

Answer 23

• Children who observed the aggressive model had far more aggression imitation rates than those in non aggressive model and control group
  
  • Girls showed more physically aggressive responses if model was male but more verbal if the model was female
  • Boys much more likely to imitate same sex models (little evidence for girls)
    Boys more likely to imitate aggression behavior (similar for verbal)

Question 24

bandura conclusions

Answer 24

Demonstrates that children are able to learn social behaviour like aggressive through observation and imitation.

Question 25

bandura section a

Answer 25

36 boys, 36 girls, (72) average age if 4 yr olds, children were matched on pre-existing levels of aggression on a 5-point scale by nursery teacher and experimenter

Lab experiment, independent measures

Question 26

bandura and Chaney similarity

Answer 26

They both obtained numeral quantitative data.

bandura = the number of the children’s initiative aggression acts was calculates from the observations recorded, for example how many children showed aggression behavioral act in the aggressive model

Chaney =Chaney’s study the percentage of adherence in the children using the funhaler compared to the regular inhaler was found.

however = lacks complexity and reasoning

Question 27

bandura and Chaney difference

Answer 27

They used different research methods

Bandura = laboratory method, observing the imitation of aggression behavior of children in a controlled environment… lacks ecological validity

Chaney = field experiment, manipulating the independent variable by changing the type of inhaler to funhaler, but researching the affect on the child’s adherence in the natural environment, like their homes…lacks control/reliability

Question 28

Chaney extent of understanding of children behaviour

Answer 28

To large extent as Chaney builds on Bandura’s findings by demonstrating another way in which children can learn.

Bandura showed that children learn through the process of social learning theory, observing and imitating aggressive adult models of behaviour.

Chaney adds to this by showing that children alternatively learn through operant conditioning an specifically positive reinforcement. For example he found a much higher percentage of medical adherence rate (81%) when using the ‘funhaler’, which was bright coloured and had a spinner, compared to when using a conventional inhaler.

Question 29

extend that Chaney increase understanding of diversity

Answer 29

Chaney improves our understanding of individual, social and cultural diversity to a small extent, showing similar findings to Bandura.

Bandura shows that there are individual differences in children’s behaviour due to gender influence with participants being more likely to imitate a same-sex model of aggressive behaviours.

However, Chaney does not show gender differences and neither look at how an adult learner or children’s, as they develop, behaviour is affected by external factors. As well as this both studies only include one western example of their hypothesis, Bandura using 72 children from the USA and Chaney using 32 children from Australia,

Question 30

kohl and lee simarlity

Answer 30

One similarity between Kohlberg and Lee is that they are both cross cultural studies.

Kohlberg studied children’s stages of moral development from USA, Canada, Taiwan and Mexico.

Lee studies children’s moral evaluations from different cultures, obtaining a sample of children from China and Canada,

Question 31

kohl and lee difference

Answer 31

One difference between the two studies is that Kohlberg is a longitudinal study as Lee is a snapshot study.

Kohlberg studied children’s stages of moral development across different cultures, over the span of many years, with children starting from 10,13 and 16 up until the age of 24 years old.

However, Lee studied children moral evaluations across cultures from 7, 9 and 11 only in one period of time.

Question 32

lee extent increases understanding of children moral development

Answer 32

Lee changes our understanding to a large extent, by disproving Kohlberg’s theory that moral development is a universal process.

Kohlberg’s research found that when studying children from Taiwan, Turkey, the UK, Canada and comparing the findings to those from the USA, all progressed through his outlined process of moral development by the end of the 12 years.

However, Lee found that there are cultural differences not only in the change of context of thinking, but fundamental moral rules. For example, ‘you must not tell lies’ in one culture was seen as ‘you should tell lies in certain circumstances’, when hey were asked to evaluate the moral dilemmas, which were either pro/anti-social and lie/truth-telling. When studying Chinese and Canadian children, Lee found that Chinese children view lie-telling more positively in some pro-social stories than Canadian children did.

However, this shows similar results to Kohlberg that children’s moral judgements does development and change systematically as they age.

Question 33

lee extend increases understanding of diversity

Answer 33

Lee largely builds on our understanding of cultural diversity to a large extent by demonstrating that there is cultural differences in children’s moral development.

Kohlberg’s research found that when studying children from Taiwan, Turkey, the UK, Canada and comparing the findings to those from the USA, all progressed through his outlined process of moral development by the end of the 12 years.

However, Lee found that there are cultural differences not only in the change of context of thinking, but fundamental moral rules. For example, ‘you must not tell lies’ in one culture was seen as ‘you should tell lies in certain circumstances’, when hey were asked to evaluate the moral dilemmas, which were either pro/anti-social and lie/truth-telling. When studying Chinese and Canadian children, Lee found that Chinese children view lie-telling more positively in some pro-social stories than Canadian children did.

However Lee builds on the same initial understanding of individual diversity in moral evaluations of children as Kohlberg by showing how it changes depending of age/stage of development. For example, Lee found that Chinese children judged truth-telling stories less positively with age, similarly to how Kohlberg outlined set stages of moral development in children