Developmental Flashcards
What is an attachment
An attachment is a strong long lasting emotional tie or bond to a particular individual (PCG). It involves efforts to get physically close to the attachment figure and leads to distress of separation (separation anxiety). A baby is capable of making this firm emotional bond at 7-11 months
What is the learning theory
Children learn to become attached to their caregiver because they give them food. Learning can be due to associations being made between different stimuli (Classical conditioning) or behaviour can be altered by patterns of reinforcement (operant conditioning)
Explain classical conditioning
It proposed that infants are born with reflexes to eat, an automatic inbuilt response. Infants become attracted to people who feed them and look after their physical need. The caregiver who feeds the infant becomes associated with pleaser through satisfying the main drive of hunger.
- Food is an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response (pleasure)
- At first the caregiver is a neutral stimulus who produces no response
- However, because she is continually paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food) she slowly becomes associated with it until eventually mother alone can produce pleasure
- Mother has now become a conditioned stimulus and the pleasure she brings is a conditioned response
Explain operant conditioning
Learning by rewards (reinforcement). Once an infant has made an association between the caregiver and pleasure it will engage in behaviours that encourage the caregiver to remain present e.g. Smiling, crying. This is reinforcing so a baby learns to repeat its behaviour to get the same response. If behaviour gets an unpleasant result it is less likely to be repeated
- Any behaviour resulting in rewards will be repeated
- A hungry infant feels uncomfortable and is driven to reduce discomfort. When fed it feels pleasure (reward)
- The food is the primary reinforcer as it directly satisfies hunger
- The PCG is the secondary reinforcer as she provides the primary reinforcer (food)
- So attachment occurred because the child seeks the person who can supply the reward
One strength of the Learning theory
+ substantial body of lab evidence to support the principles. This is well controlled, objective and replicable. E.g. Pavlovs dog (CC) and Skinner (OC - bird pecks certain colour and is rewarded) However this research has been conducted on animals and we might not be able to generalise the result to humans
3 weaknesses of learning theory
- CC predicts that the infants strongest attachment would be to its PCG but Schaffer and Emerson, in a longitudinal home-based observation of Scottish infants (60) found that’s less than half (39%) had attachments to the PCG. E.g. Babies became attached to the fathers and siblings even through they didn’t provide food.
- Harlows monkeys - found that physical contact, rather than food, is vital for attachment. Baby monkeys had 2 surrogate mothers (wire which provided food, and cloth mum). The monkeys showed a preference to the cloth mothers rather than the wire one providing food. This suggests theres more to attachment than ‘cupboard love’ (food)
- Suggests attachments can form at any time, but research suggests there’s a sensitive period
What are the 2 explanations of attachment
- Learning theory
2. Bowlbys theory
Briefly describe Bowlbys theory of attachment
Attachment is biological and instinctive, it gives a newborn an advantage as it promotes survival. Therefore it’s more likely to grow up and pass on its genetic makeup. Attachment is an evolutionary advantage.
What are the 3 main points of Bowlbys theory of attachment
- Attachment has survival value - Bowlby was influences by research with animals, especially imprinting in birds such as geese. Infants who are close to their mothers are more likely to avoid dangers. Infants have an innate drive to become attached. They encourage care by social releasers e.g. Facial features, smiles and cries. Attachment behaviour is reciprocal and carers are programmed to respond to the infants needs, so an attachment is formed.
- The attachment acts as a template or model for later relationships - Infants form one special relationship (monotropy) and this serves as an internal working model that is the basis of all expectations and rules regarding later relationships (continuity hypothesis)
- There is a critical period - attachment needs to occur after 7 months to 11 months as it’s synchronised with crawling and exploration.
5 positive criticisms of Bowlbys theory
- Very influential - it’s changed the way young children are looked after
- Evidence from animals - Lorenz’s study of geese suggests attachment is evolutionary and develops for survival
- Evidence that attachments can only be formed if the PCG is responsive - Harlows monkeys
- Evidence to support the continuity hypothesis that children who had strong attachments as children were better emotionally and socially as adults
- Research into the ‘critical period’ - Hodges and Tizard
4 negative criticisms of Bowlbys theory
- Ethnocentric - in many cultures the normal patterns of child rearing are different than Western practice e.g. Israeli Kibbutz children are looked after by a metapelet and may have several attachments
- Shaffer and Emerson - suggests that children don’t always have one special attachments but multiple strong attachments
- Kibbutz children and Shaffer & Emerson go agains the idea of monotropy
- Temperament hypothesis - theory that babies temperaments affect the mothers responses and attachment. This isn’t considered
Who developed the Strange situation
Ainsworth and Bell (1971)
What is the strange situation
Method of controlled observation to see how infants behaved under conditions of mild stress and novelty. Stress was created by the presence of a stranger (stranger anxiety) and separation from PCG (separation anxiety). The aim was to test the quality of the infants attachment by looking at exploration, reactions to the stranger, and reunion with the PCG. During this time reactions were noted by an observer who watched through a one way mirror and recorded the child’s behaviour
How long was the strange situation and describe the Ps
- Approx 20 minutes (3 mins each stage, apart from 30 second first stage)
- 100 middle class USA infants from 12-18 months
Describe the stages of the strange situation
- PCG, infant and observer - observer shows caregiver and infant the experimental room and leaves
- PCG and Infant - caregiver sits and watches, infancy explores and plays with toys
- Stranger, PCG and infant - stranger enters, silent, then talks to PCG, then interacts with infant. PCG leaves the room
- Stranger and infant - first separation from PCG. Stranger interacts, talks and plays with infant
- PCG and infant - first reunion. PCG returns, stranger leaves. PCG greets, comforts, settles infant then leaves
- Infant alone - second separation
- Stranger and infant - stranger enters and interacts
- PCG and infant - second reunion. PCG enters, greets infant and picks up infant. Stranger leaves quietly
Name and describe the 3 types of attachment found by Ainsworth and Bell in the strange situation
- Securely attached (70% USA infants) - infant explores, plays happily, uses PCG as a secure base, shows moderate distress when separated from PCG, goes to her for comfort when she returns, easily soothed. Clearly prefers PCG to stranger
- Insecure avoidant (20% USA infants) - pays little attention to PCG, shows little concern when PCG leaves, PCG tends to ignore the infant, little stranger anxiety, makes little effort to renew contact with PCG or actively avoids contact (looking and turning away), shows no real preference
- Insecure resistant (10% USA infants) - very distressed when separated from PCG, difficult to comfort on reunion, infant rushes to PCG but may show anger and struggle to get down, PCG behaviour inconsistent (sometimes rejecting and angry, sometimes overly sensitive and responsive), tends to ignore stranger, resists attempts to interact, difficulty moving away from caregiver
Which type of attachment is associated with healthy development in terms on emotions, social and cognitive development
Secure attachment
Ainsworth found the sensitively (maternal sensitivity hypothesis) of the PCG is of crucial importance. Explain the behaviours of the PCGs in the 3 types of attachment found
- secure - very sensitive, responded in an emotionally expressive way, encourages exploration and interaction if the child is unsure
- avoidant - uninterested, ignoring them, self-centred and rigid
- resistant - behaved inconsistently, suffocating in their behaviour
2 positive criticisms to the strange situation
- easily replicated because of its systematic procedures. This facilitates easy comparison between Ps and makes it easier to identify behaviours and grands. The replicability also means the observation can be repeated to check for reliability
- non experimental method but based in a lab for control
7 negative criticisms of the strange situation
- Ethnocentric - Ps from USA, lowers generalisability to wider population
- Conducted in 1971 - research may now be dates as child rearing practices have changed
- Harm to Ps - ethics. Causing Ps to become distressed
- Small sample of 100 - lowers pop validity
- May not be a valid measure of attachment - children who have been in day care may show insecurely attached behaviour as they’re used to being left by PCG. The SS may be testing the child’s relationship rather than a characteristic that has developed in the child as a result of attachment
- Kagan - criticised the maternal sensitivity hypothesis and proposed the temperament hypothesis
- Too simplistic to say behaviour can be divided into 3 types - Ainsworth later discovered the ‘disorganised’ attachment (very rare, abused or parent pathology, child dazed and confused)
Name the cross-cultural studies which support Bowblys view that attachment is universal, and describe the studies
- Fox (1977) - studies Israeli Kibbutzim where children spent a large proportion of time looked after by a metapelet in a communal children’s centre. Tests in the SS showed the mother was still the primary attachment figure despite shared care
- Tronik (1992) - studied an African tribe, the Efe, from Zaire where infants are looked after and breast fed by different women, although they did sleep with their own mother at night. At 6 months the infants still showed one primary attachment
Name the cross-cultural studies that suggest there are important cultural differences, and describe them
- Takahashi (1990) - used the SS to study 60 middle class Japanese infants and their mothers. In comparison with Ainsworths research in the US he found similar rates of secure but no avoidant and a higher rate of resistant. The Japanese infants were particularly distressed at being left alone which may be because they’re rarely separated from their PCG. This may lead them to appearing insecurely attached
- Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenburg (1988)
Describe the method of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenburgs study on cultural differences
Used a meta-analysis, comparing the results of 32 studies using the SS in 8 different countries, including West Germany (3 studies), Israel (2 studies), Japan (2 studies), and USA (18 studies). The aim of the study was to see whether cross-cultural differences in attachments exist, and whether there were any differences in attachments within cultures.
Describe the findings of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenburgs study
- The variation within a culture was 1.5% greater than the variation between cultures
- In all cultures the highest % of children were securely attached
- There were variations between cultures
SA. IA. IR USA. 65%. 21%. 14% Israel. 64%. 7%. 29% (collectivist) Japan. 68%. 5%. 27% (collectivist) WG 57%. 35%. 8%
Israel and Japan have less avoidant and more resistant attachments than WG. Israel and Japan have similar % for IR but probably because for different reasons. Israeli infants are brought up in a Kibbutzim so aren’t used to strangers (stranger anxiety), and those in Japan aren’t used to separation from their mother (separation anxiety)
4 negative criticisms of research into Cultural Variations in Attachments
- SS may be unsuitable for classifying attachment in different cultures - it reflects the norms and views of US society. However in WG children are encouraged to be independent and this is interpreted at IA behaviour. Israeli children are not used to seeing strangers, this is interpreted as IR. Japanese children aren’t used to being separated from their mother, this is interpreted as IR
- Its false to see each country as a single culture - there are subcultures e.g. Rural/urban
- Similarities may be explained by the effects of mass media rather than innate cultural similarities
- Aviezer (1994) - found that Kibbutzim system has changed, children return to their parents at night instead of staying in the Kibbutzim
How can disruption of attachment occur
Through Deprivation, meaning when a child has formed an attachment bond but then is separated from its mother. This might occur when the mother has died or when the child’s mother has to go into hospital, or when the child has to go to hospital
What are the short term components of distress and explain them
- Protest - an immediate reaction to separation involves crying, screaming, kicking/struggling to escape, clinging to mother to prevent her leaving. This is an outward, direct expression of the child’s anger, fear and confusion
- Despair - calmer behaviour but the child feels inward angry and fear. The child may no longer expect the mother to return. They may hardly react to other peoples offers of comfort and instead prefer to comfort themselves by rocking or thumb sucking
- Detachment - child begins to respond again but everyone is treated alike and superficially. When reunited with mother, child may have to relearn their relationship, possibly even rejecting her as they feel as though she had rejected them
Name and explain the one long term component of distress
Separation anxiety - characterised by extreme clingyness, detachment and demanding (doesn’t want to be left, doesn’t accept comfort and wants more from parents)
