development - paper one Flashcards
what is the function of the cerebellum
a small wrinkled structure at the back of the brain which coordinates motor movement, dexterity and balance
what is the function of the cortex
the outer layer of brain where higher cognitive functions take place
what is the function of the thalamus
the part of the brain that passes information from the sense organs to the cortex
what is the function of the brain stem
the part of the brain that controls basic functions such as breathing and heart rate
what happens if a person suffers damage to their cerebellum?
they will struggle with muscle coordination, keeping their balance and with fine motor skills
name all four parts of the cortex
. temporal lobe
. frontal lobe
. occipital lobe
. pariteal lobe
what is the function of the frontal lobe
associated with cognitive activities such as thinking planning and problem solving
what is the function of the temporal lobe
involved with hearing
what is the function of the partial lobe
processes information related to touch on the skin like heat, cold and pain
what is the function of the occipital lobe
processes visual information
define the term nature
the idea that our characteristics and behaviour are inherited
define the term nurture
the idea that our characteristics and behaviour are influenced by our environment
what is assimilation
adding new information to existing schemas
what is accommodation
changing a new schema, or developing a new schema to cope with a situation
what is a schema
a cognitive model of people, objects or situations; based on previous information and experiences which helps us to perceive organise and understand new information
what are the four stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development called
. sensorimotor stage
. pre-operational stage
. concrete operational stage
.formal operational stage
what’s the first stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
ages 0-2 years
Sensorimotor stage
what’s the second stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
ages 2-7 years
Pre-operational stage
what’s the third stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
ages 7-11 years
concrete operational stage
what’s the fourth stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
ages 11+ years
Formal operational stage
define egocentric
not being able to see things from another persons point of view
define conservation
knowing the amount of something stays the same even though it’s appearance might change
define a fixed mindset
Individuals with a fixed mindset believe their intelligence is unchanging and down to genetics, therefore nothing they can do will be able to change this
define a growth mindset
Individuals with a growth mindset believe their intelligence derives from hard work and can be increased by putting in more time and effort into learning.
what is self efficacy?
Self-efficacy is defined as the belief you have in your own ability to succeed at a task.
what are the two types of praise according to Dweck’s Mindset theory
person and process praise
define person praise
the student Is praised for their intelligence. for example, they are told they are clever
define process praise
the students is praised for their effort and the processes they use in completing a task. for example, they are praised for the progress they have made
how can students increase their levels of self efficacy?
. being successful at something
. being guided through a task
. being persuaded they can achieve by a role model such as a teacher
. observing other people succeed at something due to their effort
define the term ‘learning styles’
the different ways that a person can process information
define the term ‘verbaliser’
someone who processes information by speaking and listening, auditory processing
define the term ‘visualiser’
someone who processes information by looking at it, visual processing
what are the three main type of learning styles
- visual
- auditory
- kinaesthetic
describe a visual learner
they learn best by reading or seeing pictures. they like to look at what they are learning, they try to remember what things look like
describe an auditory learner
they learn best by listening, they like to hear something or speak to learn it. they remember what they have heard
describe a kinaesthetic learner
they learn best by doing something, they like to move or make what they are learning, physical activity is involved in order for them to learn well
Descirbe Willingham’s learning theory
Willingham criticised the learning style approach to teaching and says it does not improve learning.
* Willingham believed that students should be taught using the best method based on the content being
taught rather than to their preferred learning style.
* For example when learning about maps, visual learning style should be used whereas for learning a
new language, auditory/ verbal styles may be preferable.
* A student’s ability to store the information is more important than how they learn it.
* His approach suggests it would be better for students to acquire the ability to use styles that are not
their preferred style, so that when information is presented in non-preferred styles learners can still
access the information.
* If a student struggles to learn a particular type of information, they should be given the opportunity to
practise dealing with that type of information.
* Willingham suggests teaching and learning can be improved by the application of findings from
cognitive psychology and neuroscience studies.
* Teaching children only in their preferred learning style will not improve their knowledge/
understanding/level of achievement.
Evaluate Willingham’s learning theory
His criticism of the learning style approach is supported by evidence that shows teaching using a
student’s preferred learning style does not necessarily improve that student’s results.
* Willingham’s work can be applied to education to enhance learning, therefore his theory has real
world value.
* Willingham’s ideas are backed up by valid scientific evidence which is replicable meaning his theory
is testable and valid.
* His ideas were criticised for not valuing modern day/21st century teaching.
* The theory has been criticised for discouraging creativity/imaginative learning.
* Willingham contradicts himself as some aspects of his theory suggest only facts are important
whereas other aspects of the theory say that is not the case such as not relying too heavily on
exams.
* The use of appropriate supporting or contradictory evidence/theories can be credited.
describe Dweck’s mindset theory of learning
Dweck developed her Mindset Theory of Learning which attempts to explain how students can achieve success in their learning. Dweck’s theory specifically links to mathematics and science although can be generalised to other subjects and sporting activities.
Dweck proposed that there were two types of mindsets within individuals; Fixed mindset and Growth mindset.
Growth Mindset – Individuals with a growth mindset believe their intelligence derives from hard work and can be increased by putting in more time and effort into learning.
Fixed Mindset – Individuals with a fixed mindset believe their intelligence is unchanging and down to genetics, therefore nothing they can do will be able to change this
When faced with challenges, the individual’s mindset will affect how they proceed to deal with it. Dweck believed that a fixed mindset would be likely to give up more quickly however an individual with a growth mindset would keep on trying, which would increase their chances of succeeding.
evaluate Dweck’s mindset theory of learning, two positives
this theory helps us understand how students can increase their exam grades
it informs teachers that mindsets can be changed and explains how they can change them
Evaluate Dweck’s mindset theory of learning, negative
what was the AIM of Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study, 1978
to see if children can see from another persons point of view from an earlier age than Piaget suggested
what was the study design of Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study, 1978
. lab study
. some control over extraneous variables
. all procedures were standardised to ensure replicability
. 30 children between the ages of 3.5-5 years took part in the study
what the was method of Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study, 1978
Thirty children aged from 3.5 to 5 years old took part in the laboratory study.
* Hughes tested egocentrism using a model of two intersecting walls, a boy doll and two policeman
dolls.
* To introduce the task, a policeman doll was placed on the model. Each child was asked to hide the
boy doll from the policeman doll.
* The child was told if they made a mistake, and was allowed to try the task again.
* In the actual experiment, a second policeman doll was placed on the model and the child was asked
to hide the boy doll so that neither of the policeman dolls could see him.
* Ninety percent of the children were able to hide the boy doll from the policeman dolls.
* Hughes concluded that most children between 3.5 and 5 years old can see things from another
person’s point of view so are not egocentric in their thinking.
what were the results of Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study, 1978
90% of the children aged between 3.5 and 5 years were able to hide the boy doll from the two policemen
what was the conclusion of Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study, 1978
children aged between 3.5 and 5 can see thing’s from someone else’s point of view if the situation was similar to them and the task made sense
Evaluate Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study, 1978 - two positives
- One strength of the study is that asking children to hide a doll made the task engaging and meaningful
to children. It can be argued that this meant children were better able to show their cognitive ability
than in Piaget’s original research
- One strength of the study is that asking children to hide a doll made the task engaging and meaningful
2.* One strength of this study is that it challenged Piaget’s conclusion that children are egocentric in their
thinking until the age of about seven-years-old. It suggested that some children can see the world
from different viewpoints at a significantly younger age than was previously thought
Evaluate Hughes’ Policeman Doll Study, 1978, one negative
- A limited sample of children was used as all of the participants came from Edinburgh. This means it
may be problematic to generalize these findings to explain when children from other cultures can see
things from another person’s point of view
- A limited sample of children was used as all of the participants came from Edinburgh. This means it
what was the AIM of McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study, 1974
to see if children developed conservation skills at an age earlier than Piaget suggested
what was the study design of McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study, 1974
. lab study
. some control over extraneous variables
. standardised procedures to ensure replicability
. 80 children between the ages of 4 to 6 took part in this study
what was the method of McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study, 1974
To investigate whether young children can conserve when accidental changes are made to the
appearance of objects.
* Eighty children aged from four to six years were shown two identical rows of counters and were asked
whether there were the same number of counters in each row.
* The ‘naughty teddy’ then accidentally moved one row of counters so they were more spaced out.
Again the children were asked whether there were the same number of counters in each row.
* Over 60% of the children gave the correct answer that there were the same number of counters in
each row. A higher proportion of the older children gave the correct answer compared to the younger
children.
* This suggests that children under the age of seven years old can conserve, and that the ability to
conserve number increases with age.
what were the results of McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study, 1974
62% of the 4-6 year old’s stated that there was the same amount of counters in each row and this shows that they could conserve
what was the conclusion of McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study, 1974
Children younger than the age of 7 can conserve if the change to the materials is accidental. the children know that the amount of counters has not changed
Evaluate the McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study, 1974 - POSITIVE
- This study was important because it challenged Piaget’s theory that children did not develop the ability
to conserve until the age of seven years old. McGarrigle and Donaldson’s naughty teddy study
showed that many children younger than the age of seven could conserve
- This study was important because it challenged Piaget’s theory that children did not develop the ability
1Evaluate the McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy Study, 1974 - Negative
- Some children may not have noticed the change to the row of counters as they were focused on
naughty teddy. So, they may have said the two rows had the same number of counters just because
they hadn’t noticed any changes - The older participants all came from the same primary school, whereas the younger children came
from different nursery schools. There may be extraneous variables related to the ways in which the
children were educated that may affect the validity of the findings.
Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Note: evaluation of a study with no link to the theory (max 1 mark)
this is abt the four stages
Piaget underestimated children’s abilities in his first three stages of development.
* Critical research such as Hughes ‘policeman doll’ study shows that children can think in more
developed ways than Piaget suggested when they are tested in different ways.
* Piaget assumed that all children develop the ability to think in abstract and logical ways in the formal
operational stage but research shows that this is not the case for all people.
* Piaget’s theory has been very influential in education.
* Child centred learning with a focus on readiness and discovery learning has had a great impact on
how children learn, particularly in early years and primary education.
* Piaget developed his theory using a small sample of children. They were middle class and from
Switzerland. This means his findings may not tell us about the cognitive development of children from
different social classes or cultures.
* His theory is not representative of all children
Briefly describe Piaget’s concept of conservation
- Conservation describes the ability to know that, when the appearance of something changes, the
quantity remains the same. - Piaget says that children develop the ability to conserve when they are approximately seven years old
so cannot conserve for most of the pre-operational stage.
describe the sensorimotor stage
The sensorimotor stage sees children learn about the world through their senses and by doing things (hence the name sensory and motor being combined to form sensorimotor).
The main feature of this stage is that the child develops object permanence which is the understanding that objects still exist even when they are out of sight.
describe the Pre-operational stage (2-7yrs)
The main feature of the pre-operational stages is the egocentric nature of children.
Piaget investigated this by showing children a model of three mountains and then placing a doll somewhere besides the model.
The child was then shown photos that had been taken from each side of the model and asked to choose the photo that represented the dolls viewpoint.
Piaget found that children younger than seven years old chose a photo that showed their own viewpoint, however, children older than this tended to be able to choose the dolls viewpoint. He concluded that children are no longer egocentric from the age of seven upwards.
describe the Formal operational stage (11yrs+)
Piaget believed that by the age of seven onwards, children developed the ability to conserve (conservation) and were acting in the concrete operational stage. Conservation means children know that the amount of something may stay the same, even if its appearance may change.
To investigate conservation, Piaget showed children two identical rows of counters. He then asked the child if there were the same amount of counters in each row. When a child agreed there were, he spread out one row while the child watched and asked the question again (if there were the same amount of counters between the two rows). Children under the age of seven said there wasn’t while children over the age of seven said there was.
how are animal studies used to show that NURTURE is important for brain development
Animal studies have been used to demonstrate how nurture is important for early brain development. One study compared two groups of rats with one group having toys to stimulate them while the other did not. The results found that the rats that lived with the stimulating toys developed bigger brains and showed better problem-solving skills compared to rats living on their own without stimulation. This shows how nurture can affect brain development.
Animal studies are useful however as they allow us to conduct tests that would not be possible on humans due to ethical reasons. This can help us understand how biological mechanisms in humans may work and provide us with insights that may not have been possible otherwise
Animal studies also have their limitations as we have to be careful when we draw conclusions on human development based on the findings of animal-based studies. This is because what applies to animals may not necessarily generalize to humans because human development is very complex and could be different.
Twins share exactly the same genetic makeup whereas non-identical twins do not. If identical twins are found to have similar characteristics then this is seen as evidence that supports nature as the cause.
Some research studies have shown that IQ between identical twins is very similar which implies nature plays a significant role in intelligence. Other research studies have found personality is also shaped by nature; one study compared the behaviours of identical twins who were raised apart.
They were found to be very similar when they met for the first time when aged 39. Both of them drove the same car, went on holiday to the same place as well as bit their nails.
This study showed some support for nature shaping personality.
Twin studies can be useful however care still needs to be taken when analysing the results.
Identical twins may have twins that appear to have similar characteristics and it can be easily thought to be down to nature but this may not be the case.
Identical twins may be treated similarly by people such as parents or peers and therefore their behavioural similarities may be due to nurture (and being treated the same) rather than their genes.
Newborn babies are useful to study as there is little chance for nurture (environmental influences) to have impacted the child. Psychologists have found that besides being able to cry, they can also recognise faces. This would suggest that nature is responsible for these abilities.
