Development

Question 1

What are the two forms of specialization in brain development?

Answer 1

1. Brain regions that are active during processing become more focused.
2. The stimuli that trigger activity shift from general to specific.

Question 2

What is required for successful specialization of the brain during development?

Answer 2

Stimulation from the environment

Question 3

What are the two types of brain growth influenced by the environment?

Answer 3

1. Experience-expectant growth
2. Experience-dependent growth

Question 4

experience-expectant development

Answer 4

all brains depend on the same basic experiences to develop normally

Question 5

experience-dependent development

Answer 5

individual differences in brain development depend on the unique experiences that are encountered across the life span.

Question 6

What is a benefit of the immature brain’s lack of specialization?

Answer 6

Plasticity: Damage to the brain or deprivation of necessary experiences can be overcome in children.

Question 7

At what age does neuronal development finish?

Answer 7

18 months

Question 8

At what stage is the brain recognizably human?

Answer 8

By 9 months, with its wrinkled and disproportionately large cortex, the brain is instantly recognizable as human. Underneath the cortex, other specialized structures are also present and in working order

Question 9

What happens to synapses after a rapid growth in number?

Answer 9

A plateau is reached followed by a rapid elimination through puberty (synaptic pruning).

Question 10

Synaptic pruning:

Answer 10

Gradual reduction in the number of synapses that begins in infancy and continues to early adolescence, where the brain down sizes and removes unnecessary connections

Question 11

When does total cerebrum volume peak?

Answer 11

Just before the onset of puberty.

Question 12

What is the trajectory of cortical maturation?

Answer 12

Continues until at least age 30; primary cortical regions mature first, followed by areas responsible for spatial and language skills at puberty, and finally tertiary cortical areas.

Question 13

Describe cognitive development in terms of multidimensionality and directionality

Answer 13

Cognitive development involves several types of intellectual abilities, some of which improve (crystallized intelligence) and some of which decline (fluid intelligence) during adulthood.

Question 14

What type of memory is key for infants to recognize faces, voices, and movement?

Answer 14

Sensory and motor memory

Question 15

What memory developments occur during early childhood?

Answer 15

Working memory improves; children begin to form memories of events and experiences.

Question 16

When does grey matter volume peak? Subcortical grey matter volume? White matter volume?

Answer 16

● Grey matter volume peaks around 6 years of age.
● Subcortical grey matter volume peaks mid-puberty.
● White matter volume peaks in young adulthood.

Question 17

At what stage of life is the rate of growth for grey matter volume, white matter volume, and subcortical grey matter volume at its maximum?

Answer 17

Infancy and early childhood

Question 18

What age-related changes occur in the hippocampus and medial temporal regions?

Answer 18

● These regions continue to develop throughout childhood.
● Complex memories are encoded in adolescence indicating development of these regions and connections with the prefrontal cortex (PFC).
● Slight decreases in volume are observed in middle-age.
● Atrophy is normal in healthy aging.

Question 19

What age-related changes occur in language regions (frontal and temporal lobe)?

Answer 19

● In childhood, there is a rapid increase in synaptic growth in language-related areas like Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
● Adolescence is associated with increased connectivity between these areas which support complex language processing.
● Subtle changes may be observed in middle-age.
● Decreases in gray matter are observed in older age.

Question 20

What age-related changes occur in the regions responsible for executive function (EFs) (prefrontal cortex)?

Answer 20

● Connections between the prefrontal cortex and other brain areas are still forming in childhood.
● While more developed in adolescents, connections in the prefrontal cortex are still underdeveloped compared to other areas.
● Peak development is in young adulthood with connections still evolving in middle age.
● Connectivity and volume decrease in older adulthood

Question 21

What age-related changes occur in the regions responsible for emotion processing (amygdala and prefrontal cortex)?

Answer 21

● Children’s emotional skills are in early development stages, thus they often rely on caregivers for the appropriate response.
● Connections between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are still occurring in adolescence, often resulting in heightened emotions.
● In adulthood, a balance between the limbic system and prefrontal cortex occurs.
● Older adults show less reactivity to negative stimuli.

Question 22

In what order do brain regions mature?

Answer 22

Primary cortical regions mature first, areas responsible for spatial and language skills mature at puberty, and tertiary cortical areas mature last.

Question 23

What are the three characteristics of cognitive development?

Answer 23

● Multidimensional: There are several types of intellectual abilities.
● Multidirectional: Some abilities improve and some decline during adulthood.
● Fluid intelligence declines throughout adulthood, while crystallized intelligence improves.

Question 24

What are the key memory developments in early childhood?

Answer 24

● Working memory improves.
● Children begin to form memories of events and experiences

Question 25

What are the key memory developments in middle childhood?

Answer 25

● Memory strategies develop.
● Children become better at using techniques to remember lists, facts, and information.
● Long-term memory (LTM) is more developed, allowing them to retain more knowledge

Question 26

What are the key memory developments in adolescence?

Answer 26

● Working memory continues to improve.
● Adolescents are much better at using memory strategies.
● LTM capacity significantly expands

Question 27

What key language developments occur in early childhood?

Answer 27

● Children speak their first words around 18 months followed by simple sentences.
● Vocabulary rapidly grows at this stage

Question 28

What key language developments occur in middle childhood?

Answer 28

● They develop better comprehension and expression of complex sentences.
● They improve their grammar and continue to expand their vocabulary.
● They begin to be able to convey abstract concepts.

Question 29

What key language developments occur in adolescence?

Answer 29

● They improve their ability to use sarcasm, metaphor, and abstract reasoning.
● They improve their ability to use different language content in different contexts.

Question 30

How do EFs help children?

Answer 30

They help children regulate attention, behavior, and emotions.

Question 31

What improvements in EFs occur in middle childhood?

Answer 31

● Cognitive flexibility, problem-solving, and planning improve.
● Time management and organization skills develop.
● Ability to consider other perspectives develops

Question 32

How do EFs contribute to skills in adolescence?

Answer 32

Improvements in EFs contribute to the ability to engage in abstract reasoning, critical thinking, and strategic planning.

Question 33

What improvements in EFs occur in adolescence?

Answer 33

They start improving at self-regulation, goal setting, and managing complex tasks.

Question 34

What characterizes infant “attention” in infancy/early childhood?

Answer 34

“Attention” is more reflexive behaviors and they are attracted to novel high-contrast stimuli.

Question 35

What attention developments occur in early childhood?

Answer 35

Children begin to be able to focus for longer durations.

Question 36

What attention developments occur in middle childhood?

Answer 36

● Large improvements in sustained attention.
● They develop the ability to efficiently switch attention between tasks.
● They develop the ability to divide attention.

Question 37

What attention developments occur in adolescence?

Answer 37

● Improvements in sustained and selective attention.
● They fine-tune their ability to task-switch

Question 38

What characterizes emotional development in infancy/early childhood?

Answer 38

● Experience basic emotions.
● Use body language to communicate feelings.
● Develop emotional attachment to caregivers at this stage

Question 39

What emotional developments occur in middle childhood?

Answer 39

● Can recognize others’ emotions.
● Are more able to label their own emotions.
● Develop an understanding that emotions can be influenced by internal and external factors.
● Friendships become important.

Question 40

What emotional developments occur in adolescence?

Answer 40

● They develop increased emotional awareness and control.
● They experience embarrassment and pride more than younger children.
● They become more skilled at recognizing others’ emotions

Question 41

What are the two types of data collection methods for cognitive trajectories?

Answer 41

● Cross-sectional data: Comparing people of different ages at one time point.
● Longitudinal data: Following the same people over time

Question 42

What is a cohort effect?

Answer 42

Different cohorts have different levels of cognitive performance, suggesting that cross-sectional results may be influenced by cohort effects.

Question 43

Define crystallized and fluid intelligence.

Answer 43

● Crystallized abilities: Cumulative abilities built up over time (e.g., general knowledge, vocabulary), remaining stable with age.
● Fluid abilities: Require flexibility of cognitive processing at the time of the test (e.g., processing speed, attention, task switching), declining with age.

Question 44

How does processing speed change throughout life?

Answer 44

Processing speed declines steeply from early in life.

Question 45

What types of attention are preserved in older adults? Which decline?

Answer 45

Sustained attention: preserved with age
Selective attention: declines with age
Divided attention: declines with age

Question 46

What is long-term episodic memory and how does it change with age?

Answer 46

● Memory with the conscious recollection of information from a specific event or point in time.
● Stable until about 55-60 years of age.
● Declines around 65.

Question 47

What is long-term semantic memory and how does it change with age?

Answer 47

● Memory for the meaning of words and concepts not specific to events or times.
● Increases from 35-55 followed by a plateau.
● Slight decline after 65 but not as substantial as episodic memory decline.

Question 48

How does working memory change with age?

Answer 48

● Involves holding information in mind and manipulating it.
● Declines with aging

Question 49

How does short-term memory change with age?

Answer 49

● Involves holding information in mind for short times.
● Relatively preserved in normal aging

Question 50

How do language abilities change with age?

Answer 50

● Vocabulary remains stable and even improves over time.
● Semantic memory also remains stable or improves.
● Visual confrontation naming is stable until around age 70, and then declines.
● Verbal fluency also shows declines with aging.

Question 51

Do crystallized abilities decline with aging? Do fluid abilities? What about processing speed, attention, memory, and language?

Answer 51

● Crystallized: No
● Fluid: Yes
● Processing Speed: Yes
● Attention: Simple tasks- no, Complex tasks- yes
● Memory: Mixed
● Language: In general- no, Visual confrontation naming/verbal fluency- yes