Development Flashcards
When does brain development begin?
During the third week of pregnancy.
What is the first structure which forms?
The neural plate.
What happens to the neural plate and what does it form?
It folds over itself to form a tube-shaped structure called the neural tube.
At what week does the neural tube begin to divide?
The 4th week.
What structures does the neural tube divide into?
- Spinal cord.
- Forebrain.
- Midbrain.
- Hindbrain.
What happens during the sixth week to the forebrain?
It divides into two areas.
What two areas does the forebrain divide into?
The cortex and the thalamus.
What is the cortex?
The outer layer of the brain where higher cognitive functions take place, e.g speech.
What is the thalamus?
The part of the brain that passes information from the sense organs to the cortex.
What starts to develop in the spinal cord?
Neurons and synapses.
What is a neuron?
A specialised nerve cell which generates and transmits an electrical impulse.
What is a synapse?
The small gap between the dendrite of one neuron and the receptor site of the next one, which allows signals to pass between them.
What does the development of neurons and synapses enable the foetus to do?
Move around and react to its environment.
What happens by the 15th week in terms of the hindbrain?
The cerebellum has formed from the hindbrain.
What is the cerebellum?
A small, wrinkled structure at the back of the brain which coordinates motor movement, dexterity, and balance, among other things.
What happens by the sixth month of pregnancy?
The brain is fully formed, but it does not reach its full size for a while yet.
What happens during the last three months of pregnancy?
Folds begin to form on the cortex which gives the brain its wrinkled appearance.
What percentage of the brain out of its adult size is it at birth?
It is 25% of its adult size.
What is the brain stem?
It is the part of the brain that controls basic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
How is the brain stem shaped?
Like a widening stalk.
What does the brain stem connect?
The spinal cord to the brain.
What does the brain stem control?
Basic autonomic functions. By week 6, the baby’s heart beats regularly and blood pumps through the main vessels.
Where is the thalamus found?
In the centre of the brain.
What can the thalamus be viewed as?
A sensory processing station.
What is sensory processing?
The brain receives messages from the senses and turns them into appropriate motor and behavioural resources.
Where does sensory information pass through?
The thalamus on the way to the cortex, which is where cognition takes place.
What is cognition?
The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge; these include thinking, planning and problem solving.
Where is the cerebellum located?
At the back of the brain - behind the brain stem.
What happens if someone suffers damage to the cerebellum?
They are likely to have difficulty with muscle coordination, keeping their balance, and with fine motor skills.
What is a diagram which shows where all of these functions are located?
Where is the cortex located?
It is the outer layer of the brain.
What is the cortex associated with?
Higher cognitive processes and divided into four lobes.
How are the lobes seperated?
Based on their association with different functions.
What are the four lobes?
- Occipital lobe.
- Temporal lobe.
- Parietal lobe.
- Frontal lobe.
What is the function of the occipital lobe?
It processes visual information.
What is the function of the temporal lobe?
It is involved with hearing,
What is the function of the parietal lobe?
It processes information related to touch on the skin like heat, cold, and pain.
What is the function of the frontal lobe?
It is associated with cognitive activities such as thinking, planning, and problem solving.
What is a diagram that shows the separation of these four lobes?
What is nature?
The idea that our characteristics and behaviour are inherited.
What is nurture?
The idea that our characteristics and behaviour are influenced by our environment.
How do psychologists study the roles of nature and nurture in brain development?
- Twin studies.
- Newborn babies.
- Animals.
What are the twin studies?
Identical sure, exactly the same jeans, where is non-identical twins do not. Identical twins have the same characteristic. It is evidence that the characteristic is due to nature. A number of studies have shown that IQs of identical twins are very similar, implying that nature has a major role in intelligence.
What is another example of a twins study?
Another study looked a pair of identical twins, who raised apart from the age of four weeks. They were very similar, and when they met for the first time, aged 39. They both had the same car, went on holiday to the same place and both fit their nails. It was concluded that nature plays more of a role in personality than nurture.
What is a criticism of the twin studies?
Twin study for, but you have to be careful when analysing the results. Identical twins may have more characteristics in common than non-identical twins, but this may not be entirely due to nature. Identical twins tend to be treated in very similar ways by parents. Therefore nurture could still play a role.
What is the newborn baby study?
It’s useful to study newborn babies because there will be very little impact of nurture on a baby before birth. Psychologist found that besides being able to cry babies can recognise faces. This implies that nature is responsible for these abilities.
What is a criticism of the newborn baby studies?
As babies are not able to talk until much later on, it is believed that nurture is responsible for language development.
What is the study on animals?
In one study, baby rats were kept in cages on their own with no toys. Another group of baby rats were kept in a cage together with lots of stimulating toys. The rats that lived in the group in the stimulating environment, developed, bigger brains and demonstrated better problem-solving skills than rats that lives on their own. This supports the idea that nurture is very important for early brain development.
Why are animal studies useful?
When it is not possible to conduct experiments on humans due to ethical reasons.
What is a criticism of animal studies?
What applies to animals may not always apply to humans because humans are more complex.
What is cognitive development?
The changes that take place over time in a persons thinking and intellect.
Which theory concerns cognitive development?
Piagets theory of cognitive development.
What does Piagets theory of cognitive development say?
He believed that schemas were the key to cognitive development, and he described how they developed as a child grew up. Can you believe that babies are born with simple schemas for sucking and grasping. As the baby grows, new schemas develop.
What is a schema?
A cognitive model of people, objects, or situations; based on previous information and experiences which helps us to perceive, organise, and understand new information.
How do schemas develop?
Through:
- Assimilation.
- Accommodation.
What is assimmilation?
Adding new information to an existing schema.
What is accommodation?
Changing a new schema, or developing a new schema to cope with a new situation.
What is an example of assimilation?
Babies will use their sucking schema with fingers and other things that they pit in their mouth.
What is an example of accommodation?
However, in order to suck through a straw, the basic sucking schema needs to be changed.
What did Piaget believe about children’s intellectual development?
He believed that there are four stages to children’s intellectual development.
What did he say about these processes in relation to the age and order of children?
He said that all children pass through the stages in the same order, and roughly at the same ages.
What is the sensorimotor stage?
In this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and by doing things.
What ages does the sensorimotor stage take place at?
0-2 years old
What is the main feature of the sensorimotor stage?
That the child develops object permanence.
What is object permanence?
Knowing that objects still exist even when they are out of sight.
How did Piaget investigate object permanence?
Piaget gave a child a toy to play with. Then, while the child was watching, Piaget took the toy and hid it underneath a blanket. He watched to see whether or not the child would search for the toy.
What were the results that Piaget obtained from the study to investigate object permanence?
He found that children under the age of eight months did not search for the toy, whereas children aged eight months and older did. Therefore, he concluded that they had developed object permanence.
What is the pre-operational stage?
It is when children are unable to apply reason to solve problems.
What ages does the pre-operational stage take place at?
2 - 7 years.
What is the main feature of the pre-operational stage?
It is that children are egocentric.
What does it mean when children are egocentric?
They are not able to see things from another persons point of view.
How did Piaget investigate egocentrism?
Piaget showed children a model of three mountains. He then placed a doll somewhere beside the model. The child was then shows photos that had been taken from each side of the model. The child had to choose the photo showing the view that the doll could see.
What results did Piaget obtain from his study on egocentrism?
He found that children under the age of 7 chose a photo that showed their own view. However, children aged seven and older were able to choose the photo that showed the dolls view. He concluded that children are no longer egocentric from the age of seven.
What is the concrete operational stage?
Piaget believed that by the time children reached the age of seven, they had developed the ability to conserve.
What ages does the concrete operational stage take place at?
7 - 11 years.
What is conservation?
Knowing that the amount of something stays the same, even though its appearance may change.
How did Piaget decide to investigate conservation?
He showed children two identical rows of counters. He then asked the child if there were the same amount of counters in each row. When the child agreed there were, he spread out one of the rows of counters while the child watched. He then asked the child again if there were the same amount of child in each row.
What were the results found from the study on conservation?
Children under seven said there were not, whereas children aged seven and over said there were.
What is the formal operational stage?
It is when children can solve problems in a systematic way.
What age does the formal operational stage take place at?
11+
How did Piaget decide to investigate being formal operational?
Children were given different lengths of string and a number of weights that could be attached to the string. The child’s task was to investigate what factor affected how fast the pendulum would swing. The child had to vary the length of the string, and the number of weights attached.
What were the results found from the study on being formal operational?
Piaget found that children under the age of 11 would attempt to change both the weight and the length of the string at the same time. However, after the age of 11, children would keep the length of the string the same, while they changed the weights in turn, from the lightest to heaviest. Therefore, Piaget concluded that a main feature of this stage was that children could solve problems systematically.
How did Piaget believe that a childs intelligence develops from?
From discovering things from him selves.
How does Piaget believe that children learn?
Piaget also believed that children needed to be ready to learn and that they could only gain new concepts and understanding if they were at the right stage of their development as predicted by his stage theory of cognitive development.
How can we apply Piagets theory in education?
- Teachers should take s readiness approach. They need to present opportunities for the child to learn new concepts only when they are at the right stage of intellectual development and ready to learn.
- children should be taught in a child centred way. The teacher should provide the materials and allow the child to discover the answers to problems for themselves.
- Materials for science and maths should consist of actual objects that a child can manipulate. For example, string and weights to investigate the pendulum task.
What are some advantages of Piagets theory of cognitive development?
Piaget’s theory has enjoyed a lot of mainstream support. His experiments were easy to replicate and his research had a major impact on early years education where his ideas are still used to this day.
What are some disadvantages of Piagets theory of cognitive development?
- More recent studies have shown how babies develop object permanence before eight months (Hughes “Policeman Doll” study 1978) and children can lose their egocentric thinking and conserve before the age of seven (McGarrigle and Donaldson’s Naughty Teddy study 1974).
- There is also now the belief that children enter the formal operational stage much later than age 11, and some never reach this stage at all.
- Other criticisms of Piaget’s theory focuses on how he conducted his experiments. For example, in the conservation tasks, he asked children the same question more than once before and after the counters had been moved. This could have resulted in researcher bias as the children may have believed that their first answer may be incorrect and so changed this.
What was the aim of Hughes policeman doll study?
To see if children can see things from another persons point of view, at an earlier age than Piagets theory suggested.
What was the study design of Hughes policeman doll study?
Tori study in which there was some control of possible extraneous variables. All procedures were standardised to ensure the study could be replicated easily. 30 children between eight the ages of 3 1/2 years and five years took part in the study.
What was the method of Hughes policeman doll study?
- torture shown a model with two intersecting walls that formed across a police tall was placed on the model. The child was asked to hide a boy dancer. The policeman doll could not see him.
- police man was then placed in different positions on the model and each time the child was asked to hide the boy. This was to ensure the child understood the task. If the child made mistakes, they were told, and we allowed to try again. This was rarely necessary, because the children seemed to understand the task straight away.
- then the actual experiment began. Another policeman doll was placed on the model, and the child was asked to hide the boy doll, so that needed policeman dolls could not see him. This was repeated three times for the different section of the great was left as the only hiding place each time.
What were the results of Hughes policeman doll study?
90% of the children aged between 3 1/2 and five years were able to hide the boy doll from the two policeman dolls.
What was the conclusion of Hughes policeman doll study?
Children, aged between 3 1/2 years and five years can see things from someone else’s point of view, if the situation is familiar to them and the task make sense.
How was this different to the findings from Piaget?
Piaget found that children were egocentric until 7 years of age.
What was an advantage of the Hughes policeman doll study?
- Hughes used an experimental design, which allowed him to have high levels of control over the experiment and its variables. This means that his results are reliable and could easily be reproduced by anyone following the same method.
- Hughes’ experiment was far more reminiscent of a situation a child might find themselves in in real life. While it’s unusual for a child to be confronted by the police, they often enjoy games such as hide and seek, which also require them to understand the viewpoints of others. This may mean the results may be more applicable and valid than those from Piaget’s experiment.
- Overall the task was simpler and made more intuitive sense to the children than Piaget’s to show that children may not be as egocentric as what was previously proposed.
What are some limitations of the Hughes policeman doll study?
The task involved hiding from a policeman, which is not a situation that young children are likely to have experienced. If it involved hiding from a parent or another child, more children might have got the correct answers.
What is the aim of McGarrigle and Donaldsons ‘Naughty Teddy’ study?
To see if children developed conservation skills at an earlier age than Piaget found, if the change to the material was accidental.
What is the study design of McGarrigle and Donaldsons ‘Naughty Teddy’ study?
I study in which there was some control of possible extraneous variables. Or procedures were standardised to ensure the study could be replicated easily. 80 children between the ages of four and six took part in the study.
What is the method of McGarrigle and Donaldsons ‘Naughty Teddy’ study?
Children were shown two rows of counters and asked if there was the same amount in each row. Then a glove puppet called ‘naughty Teddy’ made an appearance. Naughty Teddy accidentally messed up one row of counters in front of the child. The messed-up row was spread out to look longer than the other row. The experimenter pretended to be really cross with Naughty Teddy and told it off. The child was then asked if there were the same amount of counters in each row.
What were the results found of McGarrigle and Donaldsons ‘Naughty Teddy’ study?
62% of the 46-year-old stated that there was still the same amount of counters in each row, therefore they could conserve. Only 16% of 46-year-olds answer the question correctly in Piaget’s conservation of number study, when the adult made the change to the counters.
What was the conclusion drawn from McGarrigle and Donaldsons ‘Naughty Teddy’ study?
Children younger than the age of seven can conserve if the change to the material as seen to be accidental. When ‘Naughty Teddy’ messes up the role of counters and spreads them out, younger children know that the amount of counters has not changed..
What are some advantages of McGarrigle and Donaldsons ‘Naughty Teddy study?
- Other researchers have found evidence to support McGarrigle and Donaldson’s findings when replicating Piaget’s conservation of numbers study. In one such study psychologists asked the children only once in terms of how many counters there were and the study was conducted in complete silence. They showed children two rows of counters and then spread one row out asking the child only once “is there the same amount in each row?”. This study found that more 6yr olds got the answer correct than Piaget had found demonstrating that children can conserve before the age of seven (7).
What are some disadvantages of McGarrigle and Donaldsons ‘Naughty Teddy study?
- McGarrigle and Donaldson’s study can also be criticised as it involved children being tested by a stranger in an unusual environment, therefore, lacking any ecological validity or external validity to real-world situations. If the person asking the questions or the environment was familiar, more children between the ages of 4yrs and 6yrs may have shown the ability to conserve.
- Over 30% pf children still failed to conserve when “Naughty Teddy’ made the change.
- The study was then replicated by another psychologist who found that although more children could conserve when ‘Naughty Teddy’ was used, the results were not as high as McGarrigle and Donaldson had found.
What is the mindset theory of learning?
A theory that describes how students can achieve success in their learning.
What are the two types of mindsets that Dweck believes that there are?
- Fixed mindset.
- Growth mindet.
What is a fixed mindset?
The belief that ability is genetic and unchanging.
What is a growth mindset?
The belief that ability comes from hard work and can be increased.
What is an example of a child with a fixed mindset?
The child would give up very quickly when presented with a problem.
What is an example of a child with a growth mindset?
The child would keep on trying when presented with a problem, which will increase their chances of succeeding.
How can mindsets be changed?
Through training.
What is a study that demonstrates a change in mindset?
Students were taught about what happens in their brain each time they learn something new and difficult.
What effect did this have on the students?
The students who were taught this lesson showed a major improvement in their exam results, compared to a control group who did not receive the lesson.
What does Dweck believe affects a students mindset?
The type of praise or positive feedback a student receives from their teacher.
What is praise?
An expression of approval.
What are the two types of praise?
- Person praise.
- Process praise.
What is person praise?
Being praised for their intelligence. For example, they are told they are clever, or they are told they are a great scientist.
What is process praise?
The student is praised for their effort and the processes they use in completing a task. For example, they are praised for the strategies they use, or the progress they have made.
What happens to students who receive person praise in relation to their successes and failures?
That they are something beyond their control.
What happens to students who receive process praise in relation to their successes and failures?
They believe their successes and failures are due to the amount of effort they put in.
What is another study that is in reference to designing a set on mindset?
Students were given an online maths game to play, but gave them feedback on their effort, strategy and progress. This was the usual maths games, the provider score as feedback.
What were the results found from this new maths test?
Students made more of an effort, used more strategies, and perservered for longer than they usually did. It was concluded that the type of praise a student receives has a big impact on their learning.
What are some advantages of Dweck’s Mindset theory of learning?
- The theory helps us understand how students can increase their exam grades.
- It informs teachers that mindsets can be changed, and explains how they can change them.
- There are studies to support Dweck’s theory, which suggests her findings are accurate.
What is self-efficacy?
The belief in your own ability to succeed at a task.
What will a student with a strong sense of self-efficacy do?
They put in the effort to achieve their goals. They will challenge themselves with difficult tasks, and are likely to be successful.
What will a student with a low sense of self-efficacy do?
They believe that they will not be successful, so they are unlikely to try. They will avoid challenging tasks, and are less likely to achieve their goals.
How can students increase their sense of self-efficacy?
- Being successful at something.
- Observing other people succeed at something due to their effort.
- Being persuaded they can achieve by a role model such as a teacher.
- Being guided through a task.
What is a learning style?
The different ways that a person can process information.
What are the three different types of learning styles according to the VAK theory?
- Visual learners.
- Auditory learners.
- Kinaesthetic learners.
What are visual learners?
They learn best by reading or seeing pictures. They like to see what they are learning. They remember things by what they look like.
What are auditory learners?
They learn best by listening. They like to hear something, or speak it to learn it. They remember what they have heard.
What are kinaesthetic learners?
They learn best by doing something. They like to move or make what they are learning. They remember best when some type of physical activity is involved.
What is another theory of learning styles?
- Verbalisers.
- Visualisers.
What is a verbaliser?
Someone who processes information. by speaking and listening (auditory processing).
What is a visualiser?
Someone who processes information by looking at it.
What are characteristics of verbalisers?
They prefer to learn from written information, and they like to write things down. They think using words.
What are characteristics of visualisers?
They prefer to learn from pictures and diagrams. They think using pictures.
What does Willingham’s learning theory state?
He believes that learning styles do not exist in ways suggested above. He says that there is no experimental evidence to support their existence. Studies also show that teaching students in their preferred learning style has no effect on their exam results.
Why does teaching students in their prefferred learning styles have no effect on their exam results?
Because teachers usually want students to remember what things mean, not what they sound or look like. So, it doesn’t matter how the information is presented - the student needs to extract the information and store its meaning.
What is that simplified?
A students ability to store information is more important than how they learn the information.
How does Willingham believe that students should be taught?
Using the best method for the content being taught.
What is an example of this?
- In a lesson on the structures of the brain, all the students need to see a diagram of the brain, not just those with a visual learning style.
- In a language lesson, students need to hear how words are pronounced, not just those with an auditory learning style.
What happens if a student has a difficulty taking in a particular type of information?
They need to be given the opportunity to practice dealing with that type of information.
