development

Question 1

developmental psychology

Answer 1

study of human development concerned with changes in people that begin with conception and continue throughout lifespan, involves relatively permanent changes

Question 2

schema

Answer 2

an idea about what something is, cluster of interrelated concepts that tell us about how things function in the world
- built through active information in our environment

Question 3

assimilation

Answer 3

interpret new experiences and information in terms of current understanding of something, cognitive process of making new info fit in with existing understanding

Question 4

accomodation

Answer 4

changing or adjusting our schemas to include new information that cannot fit into existing schemas

Question 5

sensorimotor stage

Answer 5

• 0-2 yrs
• babies develop understanding of world and live only in present
• object permanence: child’s ability to know and understand objects continue to exist even if the they cannot be seen or heard
• tested by presenting toys to infants then covering them up to see if they would look for them (will not look for toy when covered if less than 8mths old

Question 6

preoperational stage

Answer 6

• 2-7yo
• not able to carry out mental operations to think logically, rapidly develop symbolic thinking
• egocentric: can only perceive the world from their point of view and assumes other people see hear and feel exactly same as them
• theory of mind: ability to understand other people can have differing opinions/views, allow us to understand others have unique beliefs/views that are different to our own, opposite of centrism

Question 7

how is egocentrism measured

Answer 7

• 3 mountain task: child sits on one side of mountain and asked to describe what they can see then asked to describe what person on other side can see: children in preoperational stage usually describe what they can see)
• policeman task: + shaped walls are resented with a boy doll and a policeman doll, policeman is placed in various positions and the child is asked to hide the boy doll from the policeman, therefore child had to take account of two different points of view, shows that because task made sense to child and was explained well they were more likely to succeed

Question 8

centration

Answer 8

tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time (preoperational stage)

Question 9

animism

Answer 9

belief inanimate objects have human feelings and intentions for children in preoperational stage world of nature is alive conscious and has a purpose

Question 10

concrete operational stage

Answer 10

• 7-11 yo
• children are able to think logically and carry out mental operations when working with concrete materials (adult like logic appears but limited to reasoning about concrete, real life situations)

Question 11

conservation

Answer 11

(in concrete operational stage) understanding an object does not change its weight, mass, volume or area simply because it changes shape
- measured by providing two balls of plasticine of same size and roll one into a long skinny shape, child who has conservation knows there is still same amount of plasticine

Question 12

classification

Answer 12

(concrete operational stage) able to classify groups of events by features that they have in common e.g colour, size

Question 13

seriation

Answer 13

(in concrete operational stage) ability to order objects with respect to common properties e.g biggest to smallest

Question 14

formal operational stage

Answer 14

• 11 yo …
• children capable of abstract thinking, does not rely on being able to see or handle concrete materials in order to reason about them
• can discuss possible outcomes of actions without having experience them
• can talk about honesty and morality

Question 15

logical thinking

Answer 15

in formal operational stage, individuals develop strategies to work through problems systematically, developing hypothesis and testing them until a solution is found

Question 16

logical thinking testing

Answer 16

using pendulum problem, children are provided multiple weights and lengths of string, children were asked to workout which factors (weight, length of string, height it’s released from, force) affected the rate the pendulum swings at

• children in concrete operational stage will change one or more factors in a haphazard way and rarely reached correct answer
• children in formal operational stage will systematically test factors angle them to conclude it was length of string that determined how quickly pendulum swing

Question 17

Key features of piagets theory

Answer 17

• constructivism: children build knowledge by actively exploring and experimenting
• independent learning: children can learn many things independently without support or peer interaction
• linear progression: stages always happen in same order they can never be skipped
• unique ways of thinking: stages are characterised by unique thinking patterns

Question 18

criticisms of Piaget

Answer 18

• underestimated young minds: lack of familiarities with situation (Donaldson 1984), Hughes policeman study (1975)
• failed to distinguish between competence and performance: Siegel (1991) lack of child’s verbal expression may mask competence in reasoning, saying correct answer may not mean that they understand why it is correct
• gave insufficient attention to social influences on performance: piaget viewed children as little scientists exploring world alone, directly opposes Vygotsky’s theory who believed cognitive growth developed from social interactions

Question 19

piagetian tasks with indigenous Australians

Answer 19

• development of conservation in indigenous Australians lagged behind western children due to task involving logical thinking, piaget tasks are no longer used cross culturally as formal schooling has been recognised to play a large role in developing piagetian type cognitive skills
• new task: 20 objects are placed on a grid for 30 seconds then heaped into middle and children are asked to place objects back in original squares, Kearin predicted aboriginal desert people would demonstrate high visual spatial memory skills necessary for survival and on all tasks Aboriginal children outperformed white Australians

Question 20

Heinz dilemma

Answer 20

woman near death with rare cancer, drug that may save her however costs 4000 each dose and Heinz only has 2000 (and tried every legal means/ asked everyone he could to borrow money) he asked scientist who owned the drug for a discount or to pay later but scientist refused, should Heinz break into laboratory to steal drug for his wife
Kohlberg interviewed 72 boys aged 11-17

Question 21

level one preconventional: stage one:

Answer 21

• moral focus: punishment and obedience/egocentric
• characteristics: does not recognise different points of view, confuses perspectives of authority with ones own, avoids getting in trouble
• example of moral dilemma: Hienz should not steal medicine because he will go to prison

Question 22

level one: preconventional morality: stage 2

Answer 22

• moral focus: individual,instrumental and concrete
• characteristics: aware of different interests and that these may conflict, instrumental exchange of services, goodwill and fairness, “what’s in it for me”
• example moral dilemma: Hienz should steal the medicine because he will be happier if he saves his wife even if he has to go to prison

Question 23

Level two: conventional morality: stage 3

Answer 23

• moral focus: mutual interpersonal and expectations, conformity and relationships
• characteristics: following rules, living up to expectations of others and maintaining trust, gratitude, respect and loyalty, gain approval of others
• example of moral dilemma: Hienz should steal medicine because his wife expects him to, family expects him to di whatever to save her

Question 24

level two: conventional morality: stage 4

Answer 24

• moral focus: social system and maintenance of ones conscience
• characteristics: doing ones duty, taking view of the system, obeying laws and upholding social order, “that’s the rule”
• example of moral dilemma: Hienz should not steal the medicine because law prohibits stealing

Question 25

level 3: post conventional morality: stage 5

Answer 25

• moral focus: rights and social contact
• characteristics: asserting and integrating basic rights, values and legal contracts, laws as social contracts, “for common good and elf are of others”
• example moral dilemma: 1) Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to live regardless of law, 2) Heinz should not steal the medicine because the doctor has a right to fair compensation

Question 26

level 3 post conventional morality: stage 6:

Answer 26

• moral focus: universal ethical principles
• characteristics: commitment to the universal principles of justice, respect for others, personal integrity
• example moral dilemma: 1) Heinz should steal the medicine because saving a human life has more fundamental value than property of others
  2) Heinz should not steal medicine because it violates rule of honesty and respect

Question 27

Criticism of kohlberg: gender

Answer 27

• gender bias: only used male participants so it developed a male orientated, western view of moral development, earlier research suggests females reach stage 3 and males reach stage 4 due to differences in socialisation not because of development/ values
• males: socialised to be independent and achievement orientated, leading to morality of justice
• participants were 11-17 up who hadn’t been married so it is hard for them to put themselves in Heinz shoes/empathise with him
• females: social ed to be responsible and nurturing, leading to morality of care

Question 28

Criticism of kohlberg: cultural bias:

Answer 28

case study of Hindu teacher presented with Indian version of Heinz dilemma, Hindu dharma (moral duty) forbids stealing under any circumstances therefore placed at stage 3 or 4 regardless of moral development, Kohlbergs coding system does not allow him to take into account reasoning of a man with sophisticated understanding of his own culture

Question 29

Eriksons stage theory of identity

Answer 29

consists of continual conflicts that are psychosocial (they involve psychological needs of individual and conflicting needs of society), any resolution of conflict during our lives can lead to next stage, unsuccessful resolution can lead to becoming stuck at a particular stage and not developing normally

Question 30

Stage 1: infancy (0-1)

Answer 30

• crisis: trust vs mistrust
• description/outcome: infants are dependant in mother for food,warmth, love and trust others to provide these, if infants needs are met consistently and responsively the infants will develop a secure attachment to caregiver and trust others in future
• failure to bond with caregiver/inconsistent care leads to mistrust of world around them

Question 31

stage 2: toddler (1-3)

Answer 31

• crisis: autonomy vs shame and doubt
• description: toddler learns to walk, talk, feed themselves and use toilets so they become less dependent on others
• outcome: success at becoming independent leads to self confidence/control and understands mistakes are easily fixed BUT overprotection/disapproval from parents can lead to shame and doubt on toddlers ability to be independent (doubt own skills, become anxious)

Question 32

stage 3: early childhood (3-6)

Answer 32

• crisis: initiative vs guilt
• description: children’s social and motor skills become highly developed and crisis s to balance wish to achieve more and take more responsibility while accepting parental control and discipline without guilt

Question 33

stage 4: middle childhood (6-12)

Answer 33

• crisis: industry vs inferiority
• description: industry is competence and achieved through learning at school, relationships with friends and peers increase
• outcome: children who are rewarded for their industry and achieve a success at school will develop sense of competence and mastery, meanwhile failure to achieve competence may lead to feeling of inferiority

Question 34

Stage 5: adolescence (12-18)

Answer 34

• crisis: identity vs role confusion
• description: answers who am I successfully, adolescent must integrate all solutions to earlier crisises and achieve a sense of identity incorporating all elements of self, must be resolved for successful transition into adulthood

Question 35

Stage 6: early adulthood (18-40)

Answer 35

• crisis: intimacy vs isolation
• description: achievement of intimacy with another person is important
• outcome: failure to develop a sense of identity can lead to person being incapable of forming an intimate relationship and sink into isolation

Question 36

Stage 7: middle adulthood (40-65)

Answer 36

• crisis: generativity vs stagnation
• description: focus is on work and maintenance of family relationships
• outcome: succession work and family leads to sense of accomplishment and leaving legacy for future generations, failure to resolve can lead to self-centredness and stagnation

Question 37

Stage 8: late adulthood (65-death)

Answer 37

• crisis: integrity vs despair
• description: time to reflect on ones contribution in life and view it as positive and satisfactory or as disappointing
• outcome: if life is regarded as fulfilled person can view death with a sense of integrity and if not death is despaired and feared

Question 38

Erikson strengths

Answer 38

string validity,ties important psychosocial development across lifespan

Question 39

Erikson limitations

Answer 39

vague about causes of development, no universal mechanism for crisis resolution, doesn’t explain how on psychosocial crisis influences personality at a later stage, no objective way of assessing whether a person has passed or failed a particular stage, Erikson intended it to be a tool rather than factual analysis

Question 40

Bandura social learning theory

Answer 40

emphasises observational learning (modelling or imitation)

Question 41

learning (bandura)

Answer 41

function of observing, retaining and replicating behaviour observed in others

Question 42

modelling (bandura)

Answer 42

occurs when one observes the behaviour and consequences of another to influence their own thoughts, actions and feelings (reciprocal determinism)

Question 43

Four key processes of Bandura (ARRM)

Answer 43

• attention: noticing the behaviour, percieve the model to be interesting
• retention: remembering the behaviour
• reproduction: ones ability to perform the behaviour (reproduce)
• motivation/reinforcement: the will to perform behaviour, influenced by reinforcement (rewards)

Question 44

Bobo doll experiment

Answer 44

• 72 participants (half boys, half girls) from stan Ford university nursery school between 3 and 6 (4yr,4mths was average), control group had 24 children
• first experiment: comprised of 24 children exposed to aggressive behaviour toward bobo doll
• second experiment group of 24 were exposed to non-aggressive model behaviour
• two groups were then divided based on their sex and then exposed to same-sex and opposite sex models

Question 45

Key findings of Bobo Doll experiment

Answer 45

• children exposed to aggressive model were more likely to act in a physically aggressive manner than those who were not exposed to aggressive model
• similar results were found with verbal aggression (yelling at doll)
• boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than when exposed to aggressive female models, girls had similar results
• girls were overall less aggressive than boys