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History || Origins and Growth of the British Empire > Depth Study || Britain and its American Colonies - 1660-1713 > Flashcards

Depth Study || Britain and its American Colonies - 1660-1713 Flashcards

1
Q

What were the three types of colonies in British North America?

A

Crown colonies, proprietary colonies, and charter colonies.

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2
Q

How were crown colonies governed?

A
  • governor and his council were appointed by the crown
  • governor had general executive powers and was authorized to call a locally elected assembly
  • assemblies were made up of representatives elected by the freeholders and planters of the province, and their role was to make all local laws and ordinances
  • in practice this did not always occur - many of the provincial assemblies sought to expand their power and limit that of the governor and therefore the crown
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3
Q

How were proprietary colonies governed?

A
  • proprietary colonies were governed much as royal colonies, except that lord proprietors, rather than the king, appointed the governor
  • they were typically set up post-1660 (restoration) and enjoyed greater civil and religious liberty
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4
Q

How were charter colonies governed?

A
  • charter governments were political corporations created by letters patent, giving the grantees control of the land and the powers of legislative government
  • charters provided a fundamental constitution and divided powers among legislative, executive and judicial functions, with those powers being vested in individuals
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5
Q

Examples of crown colonies

A

New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and eventually Massachusetts

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6
Q

Examples of proprietary colonies

A

Pennsylvania (included Delaware), New Jersey and Maryland

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7
Q

Examples of charter colonies

A

Massachusetts, Providence Plantation, Rhode Island, Warwick and Connecticut

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8
Q

What was the role of the British Privy Council or Board of Trade in crown colonies?

A

The British Privy Council or Board of Trade examined laws that were made by the assemblies of crown colonies and held veto power of legislation. This meant that the colonies had very little freedom, as any law the crown did not agree with could simply be removed

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9
Q

What happened to the Massachusetts charter in 1684?

A

The Massachusetts charter was revoked in 1684 and was replaced by a royal charter issued in 1691

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10
Q

What was governing of the Caribbean colonies like?

A
  • 1627 Barbados + Leeward Islands were grouped together, this was difficult to administer however, so the Leewards often had their own governor
  • 1660 Lord Willoughby, as Governor of Barbados, also governed all of the Eastern Caribbean
  • After the war, England gave in to the demands of the Leewards for separate government
  • 1671 - Crown assigned a governor-in-chief to manage St Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla, Montserrat, Antigua and Barbuda
  • 1674 - Sir William Stapleton established the first federation in the West Indies
    • Stapleton set up a General Assembly of the Leewards in St Kitts, Antigua, Montserrat and Nevis, one governor had responsibility for the Leewards and a lieutenant governor was appointed for each island
  • Stapleton’s federation was active from 1674-1685, General Assembly met until 1711
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11
Q

What happened in 1660?

A

Restoration

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12
Q

Evidence of empire expansion during this time?

A

By 1670s English colonies doubled in number

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13
Q

What were the thoughts of the colonists living in America during this time?

A
  • Colonists living in America felt that they should still have the same rights as if they were living in England and should not be treated as a commercial operation
  • In particular, felt that the should not be taxed as if they were a foreign outstation of Britain - most were upset that their foreign policy was being run by merchant venturers rather than statesmen
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14
Q

What was the main priority of Charles II’s government? What did this lead to?

A
  • Charles II’s government was concerned by trade, so in 1660s England went to war with the Netherlands
    • Charles preferred pro-France, anti-Dutch policy but marriages between the Stuart house and Orange house made this more difficult
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15
Q

Why was there never a decisive battle during the war with the Netherlands?

A

Parliament never voted for enough money to be given for a naval war against the Dutch

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16
Q

What was the most substantial result of Charles II’s anti-Dutch policy? Why was this substantial?

A
  • England seizing New Amsterdam in 1664
  • Was the first time any substantial community outside the British Isles became an English possession - there was little resistance
  • New Amsterdam was divided between serveral courtiers - largest section to Charles’ brother, James Duke of York who renamed it New York
  • Two families from Jersey recieved land, some of New Jersey was sold to Quackers, which encouraged another Quacker William Penn who wanted to set up an area of toleration (like Maryland)
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17
Q

What did William Penn do?

A
  • William Penn’s family were owed money by the Stuarts and as part of a financial settlement they gave him land, he called this Pennsylvania (1681)
  • Settlers were welcomed to this land on relatively easy terms
  • Within 12 years, Philadelphia its capital was among the top 6 largest towns in North America
  • The land that Pennsylvania stood on had never been occupied by Europeans so they had to work hard in their relations with the Indians
  • Quaker principles allowed them avoid warfare and they negotiated the price of land with the Indians
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18
Q

First Anglo Dutch War

A

1652-1654
- Result of tension caused by the Navigation Act 1651
- Series of naval battles saw both sides exhausted
- Treaty of Westminister 1654

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19
Q

Second Anglo Dutch War

A
  • 1665-1667
  • Charles II passed anti-Dutch merchantilist policies, which alongside English privateering and capture of New Amsterdam raised tensions with the Dutch
  • Fighting in the Caribbean with the Dutch and French attacking Antigua and St Kitts
  • War ended when the Dutch burned some of the British fleet at Chatham and towed away several ships which greatly expanded the Dutch navy
  • War contributed to Charles II’s near bankruptcy and fear in London of invasion
  • Treaty of New Breda allowed England to keep New Amsterdam, however England was no longer allowed to trade nutmeg and had to slightly weaken the navigation acts
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20
Q

Third Anglo Dutch War

A
  • 1672-1674
  • Navy was rebuilt
  • Public opinion unenthusiastic about starting a new war
  • Charles II was obliged to assist Louis XIV in his attack on the Dutch Republic in the Franco-Dutch War
  • War ended in British defeat and parliment forced Charles to make peace (Treaty of Westminister)
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21
Q

What was the population of America like during this time?

A

America was scarcely populated and no-one would have foreseen the large scale immigration that North America would experience

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22
Q

What was Locke’s argument about property? Who did he advise using this?

A

In America the land was empty and unclaimed and should become property of the first cultivator - advised Lord Ashley (received a charter in 1665 for a colony south of Virginia, Carolina)

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23
Q

Why did North and South Carolina split?

A
  • Northern section of Carolina was settled by people from Virginia rather than emigrants and the southern section by emigrants from Barbados and England
  • In 1691, the Company recognised this and set up two separate administrations though they were run by the same governor until 1710
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24
Q

What did most schemes of settlement in North America assume?

A

Most schemes of settlement in North America assumed that proprietors would become great landlords of the old English type on a very large scale

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25
Q

What form of ownership did settlers in North America not like?

A

Proprietor’s form of ownership, which assumed that proprietors would become great landlords of the old English type on a very large scale

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26
Q

Why did Charles II find land grants convenient?

A

Charles II found land grants very convenient because they would not cause the same level of hostility as a monopoly did, but settlers who came to America did not like proprietor’s form of ownership

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27
Q

Why was it almost impossible for the proprietors to make very much out of their estates?

A

With so much land to dispose of, it was hard to get new arrivals to accept anything less than free tenure, which made it almost impossible for the proprietors to make very much out of their estates

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28
Q

Why were the proprietors replaced by royal governors in the West Indies?

A

control was necessary as the islands were vulnerable to attack by Dutch, French, and Spanish

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29
Q

What happened to the Leeward Islands during and following the second Anglo Dutch war?

A
  • successful invasions by France on the islands
  • treaty of breda returned these islands to British control
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30
Q

What did authorities do to prevent a shift in population balance as the number of slaves increased in the West Indies?

A

As the number of slaves increased in the West Indies, authorities tried to prevent a shift in population balance by bringing out political prisoners from England, kidnapping new recruits, and passing laws to make planters employ more white men

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31
Q

What was the slave vs. white population balance like in Barbados?

A

1670 - 17 slaves for every 1 indentured labourer
1700 - 50,000 enslaved blacks, 15,000 free whites

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32
Q

When were the two slave rebellions in Barbados?

A

1675
1692

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33
Q

What happened during the slave rebellion of 1692?

A

Island wide rebellion which resulted in the execution of 40 slaves

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34
Q

When was the Barbados Slave Code implemented?

A

1661

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35
Q

What was the Barbados Slave Code?

A
  • Law passed by colonial legislature to provide legal basis for slavery in Barbados
  • Code established that black slaves would be treated as chattel property in island’s court
  • Sought to protect slaves from cruel masters and masters from unruly slaves
    • In practice provided far more extensive protections for masters than slaves
  • Law required masters to provide each slave with one set of clothing per year, but set no standards for slaves’ diet, housing or working conditions
  • Also denied slaves basic rights guaranteed under English common law, eg. right to life
  • Allowed slave owners to do as they wished to their slaves, including mutilating them and burning them alive, without fear of consequence
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36
Q

Why was the Barbados Slave Code significant?

A

Throughout British North America, slavery was prevalent before being written into law however the Barbados slave code marked beginning of legal slavery
Also served as basis for slave codes adopted in several other British colonies, including Jamaica (1664), South Carolina (1696) and Antigua (1702)

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37
Q

What was trade in Barbados like?

A
  • By 1660, Barbados generated more trade than all other English colonies combined
  • Remained so until it as eventually surpassed by geographically larger islands, like Jamaica in 1713
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38
Q

How was Barbados divided?

A
  • Barbados was divided into large plantation estates - replaced smallholdings of early English settlers
  • 1680 over half of arable land was held by 175 large planters, each of whom held at least 60 slaves
  • These great planters had connections with English aristocracy and great influence on parliament
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39
Q

Evidence for discrepancies between sugar and tobacco plantation owners

A
  • 1688 - West Indian sugar crop sold for £180,000 after customs of £18000, chesapeake tobacco earned £50,000 after customs of £75,000
  • Sugar plantation owners were allowed to keep more of their profits than tobacco growers who were essentially working for the crown
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40
Q

What was the main crop grown in Barbados?

A

Sugar

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41
Q

Where was food in Barbados imported from and why was this done?

A

So much land was devoted to sugar production that the island had to import food from New England

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42
Q

Why were poorer white people moved off Barbados and where did they go?

A
  • More economical for land owners to utilise free slave labour
  • Poorer whites who were moved off of Barbados went to English Leeward Islands, or especially to Jamaica
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43
Q

What were ‘irregulars’?

A

People who were considered to be pirates who had the purpose of protection

44
Q

Why were ‘irregulars’ employed?

A

Although the English government maintained a small military force on the islands, it was not enough to guarantee the English population against foreign invasion or slave revolt, so some islands recruited “irregulars”

45
Q

Who was Henry Morgan, and what was his role in the West Indies?

A
  • Henry Morgan was a pirate who was recruited to defend the islands in 1660
  • He was considered a pirate by some and a bold seadog by others
  • In 1671, he brutally plundered Panama, and Charles II summoned him back in disgrace, but then made him a knight
  • Morgan later chose to settle down and became Deputy Governor of Jamaica
46
Q

When did the Spanish finally accept the legality of English colonies in the West Indies, and what was the significance of this?

A
  • The Spanish finally accepted the legality of English colonies in the West Indies through the Treaty of Madrid in 1670
  • This marked the end for the irregulars, who now could either settle and live peacefully or become pirates without protection of the English crown
47
Q

What was the specific tax granted for Charles II in the Caribbean and why was it useful?

A

-Charles II managed to get the Barbados assembly and Leeward Islands to grant him 4.5% tax on sugar exported from the island
- This was useful because it was income parliament could not touch or question
- There was a feeling in the West Indies that if the money was used for the Navy it was worth paying, as the West Indian colonies would have their trade routes protected

48
Q

What was the Lords Commissioners for Trade and Plantations?

A

Established 1675 by Charles II in an attempt to control the colonies

49
Q

What was the Lords Commissioners for Trade and Plantations?

A

Established 1675 by Charles II in an attempt to control the colonies

50
Q

How did noblemen who went to the colonies differ from companies when it came to governance?

A
  • Noblemen who went to the colonies were normally sent as governors, were appointed by the King, and were expected to adopt a somewhat aloof attitude to the colonial population
  • Companies, on the other hand, normally promoted from within, using the expertise of people who had lived in the colony
51
Q

What was the relationship like between the Lords of Trade and those they were responsible for?

A

There was a disconnect between them as the Lords of Trade were made up of Church of England men, whereas most of the empire they were responsible for had been settled by people from outside of the Church of England, eg. non-conformist Protestants, Catholics

52
Q

What were the three large companies trading outside of Europe, and how did they impact London’s trade?

A

The three large companies were the Hudson Bay Company, Royal Africa Company, and East India Company. They were providing London with trade that could not come another way, such as fur and slaves, and helped London to maintain its position in India

53
Q

What were the Navigation Acts, and what was their impact on trade in both England and the colonies?

A

The Navigation Acts were a series of laws that regulated colonial trade and directed it to England
- In England, the Acts’ main importance was the encouragement of English shipping, whilst in the colonies its main impact was on trade

54
Q

What was the impact of the Stable Act of 1663?

A
  • The Stable Act of 1663 prohibited the colonies from trading with European countries or their colonies, and strengthened the re-export market
  • England had a monopoly to buy colonial goods, and products of the colonies were guaranteed the English market by a system of preferential tariffs, e.g. tax on foreign sugar was twice that on West Indian sugar
55
Q

How was authority of the government shown in the colonies?

A

In the colonies, authority of the government was still exercised through the law courts, and the importance of the Lords of Trade was shown by them hearing appeals from these colonial courts

56
Q

Who were the Lords of Trade responsible for?

A

1675 Lords of Trade had ten colonies on the North American seacoast to oversea, also had to consider six Caribbean islands, of which Jamaica looked likely to provide the best future prospects

57
Q

What was the Dominion of New England? Why was it significant?

A
  • Dominion of New England was created by James II to unite Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and New York
  • Its constitution was to have a council and governor but no elected assembly
  • Made it clear that Charles II and James II were much more concered with problems of the world outside of Europe than previous rulers had been
58
Q

How did the Dominion of New England come about?

A
  • Stuarts tried to reduce power of Massachusetts as it behaved like an independant state for 50 years
  • 1679 - territory of New Hampshire was seperated from Massachusetts and made into a seperate colony
  • Charles and James then attacked Massachusetts’s charter in court
  • 1684 - courts ruled that Massachusetts had exceeded its authority and the charter was forfieted
59
Q

What happened to single proprietor colonies under the Lords of Trade?

A
  • Lords of Trade did not like colonies owned by a single proprietor, no new ones were created after Pennsylvania
  • Over next 50 years, government bought out most of the proprietor’s rights
  • Existence of separate colonies with seperate governors was more accepted
  • Difficult communication and transport often resulted in lack of unity and colonies split in two
    • New Castle, Kent and Sussex separated from Pennsylvania to become Delaware
    • Carolina divided in two
60
Q

What was the main colonial rebellion against Charles II?

A
  • Bacon Rebellion - 1676/1677
  • Berkeley refused Bacon’s request to drive Native Americans out of Virginia + price of tobacco fell, led to discontent with the colony’s governor
  • Led by Nathaniel Bacon against Colonial Governor William Berkeley - thousands of Virginians, of all classes and races, rose up against Berkeley, chasing him from Jamestown and ultimately torching the settlement
  • Government forces arrived and spent several years defeating pockets of resistance, colonial upper class responded by passing the Virginia Slave Codes of 1705, hardening the racial caste of slavery in an attempt to divide the two races from subsequent united uprisings
61
Q

What was the role of Charles II?

A
  • Republic did not form a long-term colonial policy but Charles took the long view, knowing that the colonies would provide him with an income wth time
  • Term ‘plantation’ was still applied to the colonies, showing that a financial return was expected
  • Several ministers were given grants of land for their own settlements in North America
62
Q

What was the role of James II?

A
  • Had ownership of New York, governor of Hudson Bay Company and Royal Africa Company
  • James II’s colonies were much smaller than that of the Kings of France and Spain
  • When James succeeded his brother in 1685, he wanted to increase the power of the crown through creation of the Dominion of New England, but did not have the economic power or obediant bureaucracy needed to run a system like the continental monarchs
63
Q

When did the Glorious Revolution take place?

A

1688

64
Q

Why did the Glorious Revolution take place?

A

James’s willingness to promote the cause of Catholicism contributed to him being overthrown in 1688 and replaced by William of Orange, ruler of the Netherlands who became William III of England

65
Q

What was England’s relationship with France like at this time?

A
  • William saw seizing English throne as just one move in his struggle to resist the growing power of France
  • For next 125 years England was either at war with, recovering from, or preparing for war with France
66
Q

What were the two main colonial protests during William of Orange’s reign and when did these take place?

A

New York Rebellion / Leisler’s Rebellion - 1689-1691
Boston Revolt - 1689

67
Q

Events that prompted the New York Rebellion / Leisler’s Rebellion

A
  • James’s Dominion of New England collapsed in 1689 - too much hostility to his Catholicism
  • People of New York took advantage to revolt (New York / Leisler’s Rebellion - 1689-1691)
68
Q

Events of / following the New York Rebellion / Leisler’s Rebellion

A
  • German American merchant and militia captain Jacob Leisler seized control of colony’s south and ruled it from 1689-1691
  • Rebellion represented colonial resentment against policies of the deposed King James II
  • Royal authority was not restored until 1691 - English troops and a new governor were sent to New York
  • Leisler was arrested, tried and convicted of treason and executed
  • Revolt left the colony polarized, split into two factions
69
Q

Events that prompted the Boston Revolt

A
  • Uprising was against the rule of Sir Edmund Andros, governor of the Dominion of New England
  • Andros had upset the local population by enforcing restrictive Navigation Acts, denying validity of existing land titles, restricting town meetings and appointing unpopular regular officers to lead colonial militia
  • Also infuriated Puritans in Boston by promoting Church of England
70
Q

Events of / following the Boston Revolt

A
  • Well organised ‘mob’ of provincial militia and citizens formed in Boston (capitol of Dominion) and arrested dominion officials
  • Members of the Church of England were also arrested on suspicion of sympathising with the administration of the dominion
  • Leaders of former Massachusetts Bay Colony then reclaimed control of government
71
Q

When was the Nine Years War?

A

1688-1697

72
Q

Causes of the Nine Years War?

A

Grand Alliance (England, Netherlands, Holy Roman Empire, Spain) wanted to restrict Louis’ expansion in Europe
Louis had ensured his position as one of the greatest powers in Europe, however he was not satisfied with the gains he had made and therefore exploited the many confusions over existing treaties written in I define the status quo in Europe

73
Q

Main events of the Nine Years War?

A

Fighting was not only in France and the surrounding countries (although this was where the focus on the fighting took place)
Battle of the Boyne in Ireland was a part of the conflict, as the previously deposed Catholic James II fought with William of Orange over the control of Britain

74
Q

Consequences of the Nine Years war?

A

Treaty of Ryswick (1697)
- Boundaries and outposts between New France and New England largely remained unchanged
- In the Hudson Bay area, French influence would dominate
- Limited warfare in the Americas showed the colonists that English connection had practical uses
- English tried to unify the system of government; however, the people of Massachusetts were against this idea and the problems of a unified defence remained unsettled (this was not addressed as the Crown were more worried about the vulnerability of the Caribbean colonies)
When the Nine Years War came to an end England had spent 10% of national income per annum fighting it

75
Q

When was King William’s War?

A

1688 - 1697

76
Q

Causes of King William’s War?

A
  • By the 1690s there was tensions regarding who had control of the fur trade
    Northern colonies were spreading in north and west in a way that was likely to lead to conflict with New France
  • British settlers outnumbered French settlers 12:1
77
Q

Main events of King William’s War?

A

Conflict in the Americas became intertwined with local conflicts between Native American tribes

78
Q

Consequences of King William’s War?

A

Defeat of the English at the Battle of Quebec in 1690 by the French key battle, legacy being that Quebec remains a French speaking province of Canada

79
Q

Why was an effective navy necessary?

A

Due to fear of imposing Catholic monarch on England - England spent a lot of money to keep it strong

80
Q

Who led the two small scale invasions in 1685?

A
  • Duke of Monmouth in the West
  • Duke of Argyll in Scotland
  • Could not be stopped by navy and had to be defeated on land
81
Q

What did these two small scale invasions in 1685 show William of Orange?

A

Showed William III that James II might be able to make a successful return from exile

82
Q

Apart from risk of invasion, what was also in danger?

A

English trade

83
Q

Example of an event that demonstrated that England should be more concerned with command of the sea

A

Capture of the Smyrna convoy by the French during the Nine Years War cost England 3% of its GDP and showed England why they should be more concerned with command of the sea

84
Q

When were the Scots declared to be foreigners?

A

In a 17th century act

85
Q

What influence did the navigation acts of this period have on the Scottish?

A

Banned Scottish ships from the colonies

86
Q

When did the Scots seek to build better relations with the English?

A

After a failed attempt by the Scots to build a colony in Panama they sought better relations with the English

87
Q

When was the UK formed and why was this beneficial for Scotland?

A

1707 - UK formed
- Helped Scots to make huge profits for the sugar and tobacco merchants of Glasgow

88
Q

When was the War of Spanish Succession?

A

1701 - 1714

89
Q

Causes of the War of Spanish Succession?

A

Death of Spanish King, Charles II left succession open as he had no heir, this left Louis XIV the opportunity to reunite France and Spain, with him as the lone monarch

90
Q

Main events of the War of Spanish Succession?

A

Louis invaded Spain and began to take land for his own
England, Portugal and the Holy Roman Empire united to stop Louis’ advance
War was also fought in the Spanish Netherlands and in the Americas

91
Q

Consequences of the War of Spanish Succession?

A

Spain fell into civil war
Treaty of Utretcht

92
Q

When was Queen Anne’s War?

A

1702 - 1713 (Part of War of Spanish Succession)

93
Q

Causes of Queen Anne’s War?

A

Part of war of Spanish succession, colonies linked with France fought against those linked with the British

94
Q

Main events of Queen Anne’s War?

A

Raids between Carolina and Spanish Florida
New England Colonies fought against French and Indian forces in Acadia and Canada
Newfoundland – British and French raided each other’s settlements

95
Q

Consequences of Queen Anne’s War?

A

Decimation of Indian population in Florida
Treaty of Utrecht

96
Q

What did Rear Admiral Wager do whilst fighting in the war in the Caribbean? What was this known as?

A

Rear Admiral Wager attacked the Spanish fleet at Porto Bello and stole large amounts of Spanish treasure in the famous ‘Wager’s Action’

97
Q

What were the consequences of Rear Admiral Wager’s actions?

A

He returned a hero and was knighted, despite the dubious morality of his actions

98
Q

What was Rear Admiral Wager’s stardom indicative of?

A

His stardom was indicative of the basic nature of imperial expansion

99
Q

Evidence that the rules of warfare were not strictly followed during this time

A

Marauding of earlier privateers was seen as a necessary act in earlier years, but senior naval officers supporting the plunder of ships demonstrates how the rules of warfare were not strictly followed

100
Q

When did the British Government pass the Cruisers and Convoys Act?

A

1708

101
Q

What was the Cruisers and Convoys Act?

A

Meant that navy was duty bound to police the trade routes and protect the merchant fleet from pirates, privateers or the Spanish and French Navies

102
Q

Where did the navy play a vital role?

A

Navy played a vital role in supporting British aims to claim a base in the Mediterranean and defeated the French and Spanish at the battles of Vigo and Toulon

103
Q

When was the Treaty of Utrecht?

A

1713

104
Q

Effect of the Treaty of Utrecht on Phillip of Spain

A

Agreed that Phillip was to remain King of Spain, but in return he has to relinquish his place in the succession to the French throne - made a union of Spain and France under one ruler impossible

105
Q

Consequences of Treaty of Utrecht

A
  • Britain now had foothold in the Mediterranean
  • Britains investment in the navy meant that it had a fleet twice the size of the combined French + Spanish fleets
  • This ‘two power standard’ was a policy that was the benchmark of British affairs throughout the 18th and 19th centuries
  • Often regarded as ‘gunboat diplomacy’, the British navy was the diplomat, negotiator, warmonger and peacemaker all in one
  • Resulted in period of peace for 24 years, in which Britain further consolidated its imperial and economic position
  • Seemed as though conflict was a natural and often profitable element of expansion
  • This led to anti-French policy becoming prevalent
106
Q

British gains in the Americas through the Treaty of Utrecht

A
  • Britain took Nova Scotia peninsula - population was French but would now be ruled by the English, however French were allowed to retain their Catholic religion without being forced to follow anti-Catholic laws that had been passed by Westminister
  • British also took Newfoundland which was a sign of their domination over the whole Atlantic seacoast
  • Great Britain was awarded the Hudson Bay area which its lucrative fur trade
  • In the Caribbean, Britain received the French half of St. Kitts
  • In addition, the English were granted an asiento to transport 4800 slaves per year to Spanish America
107
Q

Gains in the Mediterranean through the Treaty of Utrecht

A
  • After efforts to dominate the Mediterranean, Britain finally controlled Gibraltar at the eastern mouth of the sea and the island of Minora (part of Treaty of Utrecht 1713)
  • Important gain for the British, as France’s naval domination of the Mediterranean was a key obstacle to Britain’s goal to control trade routes to Middle East and India

History || Origins and Growth of the British Empire (11 decks)

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