Demography

Question 1

What is birth rate?

Answer 1

the number of live births per thousand of the population per year

Question 2

What are a few changing trends of birth rates?

Answer 2

• long term decline in number of births
• in 1900 England & Wale had a birth rate of 28.7 but by 2020 it had fallen to 11.4

Question 3

What are the 4 reasons for decline in birth rates?

Answer 3

• changes in women’s position
• decline in infant mortality rate
• children are now an economic liability
• child centredness

Question 4

How has changes in women’s position affected birth rates?

Answer 4

changes in 20th century to women’s position include:
- increased educational opportunities
- laws such as unequal pay and sex discrimination
- easier access to divorce etc
- access to abortion & contraception
> Harper - education most important reason for falling birth rates as it has led to a change in mindset among women > they see other possibilities in life apart from being traditional housewife

Question 5

How has the decline in infant mortality affected birth rates?

Answer 5

• IMR= number of infants who die before 1st birthday per thousands babies born alive per year
• Harper> if many infants die, parents have more children to replace those they have lost, this no longer occurs due to fall in IMR thus fall in BR
  IMR fell due to reasons such as:
• improved housing & sanitation
• better nutrition
• improved services for mothers & children e.g. antenatal & postnatal clinics
• mass immunisation against childhood diseases

Question 6

How does viewing children as an economic liability affect birth rates?

Answer 6

• before late 19th century children were economic assets because they could be sent out to work from early age for income
• late 19ths century now a liability due to:
• laws banning child labour, compulsory schooling, raising school leaving age > mean children remain economically dependent on parents
• changing norms, about what children have the right to expect from their parents in material terms
• financial pressures mean parents less willing to have a large family

Question 7

How has child centredness affected birth rates?

Answer 7

• childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individuals life
• this has encouraged shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’
• parents choose to have fewer children and lavish more attention & resources on the few

Question 8

How does changes in birth rates affect the family/childhood?

Answer 8

• families have fewer children which leads to close parent relationships as parents can focus more time, attention & resources on child > have more disposable income
• fewer children means fewer siblings to interact > leads to lonely childhood
• parents may place greater emotional & psychological investment into offspring which may lead to ‘helicopter parenting’ > children may feel heavy burden to meet parents expectations

Question 9

How does changes in birth rates affect gender roles?

Answer 9

• traditional gender DOL within families may shift, as women can go out to work creating dual earner households & men taking on greater responsibilities in the home
• women can prioritize education and careers

Question 10

How does birth rates affect family diversity?

Answer 10

• smaller families means fewer siblings and cousins > weakens extended family networks
  > ‘beanpole family’ emerges more generations alive but few members in each generation
• rise in nuclear family (neo-coventional)

Question 11

How does birth rate affect dependency ratio & ageing population?

Answer 11

• DR = relationship between size of working population to non working population
  > fall in the number of children reduces ‘the burden of dependency’ on the working population
• Fewer adult children may be available to care for elderly parents, increasing pressure on individual family members e.g. women

Question 12

How does birth rate affect policies?

Answer 12

• fewer children leading to fewer schools
• lower demand for maternity services> resources may shift to elderly care
• lower cost of maternity & paternity leave

Question 13

What are death rates?

Answer 13

• the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year

Question 14

What are the reasons for decline in birth rates?

Answer 14

• improved nutrition
• medical improvements
• smoking and diet
• public health measures

Question 15

How has improve nutrition affected death rates?

Answer 15

• Mckeown argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates
• better nutrition increased resistance to infection and increased the survival chances of those who did become infected

Question 16

• How has medical improvements affected death rates?

Answer 16

• improved medical knowledge techniques, and organisation helped to reduce DR
• advances such as antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusions etc

Question 17

How has smoking & diet affected death rates?

Answer 17

• Harper> greatest fall in DR due to a reduction in the number of people smoking

Question 18

What was the average age of the UK population in 2020 compared to 1971?

Answer 18

2020 = 40.4
1971 =34.1

Question 19

What three factors is the ageing population caused by?

Answer 19

• increased life expectancy
• declining infant mortality rate
• declining fertility

Question 20

What are the effects of the ageing population on public services/policies?

Answer 20

• require more healthcare services > leading to a strain on the NHS
• increase need for specialized care for rise in age related illnesses e.g. dementia
• governments may implement policies such as increasing retirement age, incentivising higher birth rates

Question 21

What are the effects of the ageing population on family structures/diversity?

Answer 21

• rise in multigenerational households > elderly live with adult children and grandchildren (closer family or may be conflicts over space/finances etc)
• rise in one person pensioner households particularly women who outlive men > leads to smaller family units as they live separate from their children

Question 22

What are the effects of the ageing population on gender roles?

Answer 22

• creates sandwich generation> middle age individuals (mainly women) may be responsible for caring for both their elderly parents and their children, leading to financial & emotional strain ‘triple shift’
• elderly may help with childcare which may reduce strain on women

Question 23

What are the effects of the ageing population on childhood?

Answer 23

• grandparents can help with socialisation process, financial assistance, emotional support
• overinvolvement may cause confusion about authority
• may be reduced investment in education and youth services which may affect w/c children if funding is cut
• children may experience less attention because of sandwich generation

Question 24

How are the old viewed in modern society according to Philipson?

Answer 24

• Marxist Philipson> argues the old are no use towards capitalism because they are no longer productive
• as a consequence ageism emerges as elderly people are ‘structurally dependent’ on society & the welfare state due to their exclusion from work as a result of compulsory retirement

Question 25

What is identity and status dependent on in modern society and what status & identity are the old given as a result?

Answer 25

• dependent on the role in production and how the individual contributes to this process
• due to the old being excluded they are given a dependent status paired with a stigmatised identity
• role allocation is also hugely reliant on age, creating fixed life stages & age-related identities> old thus excluded from workforce & made powerless

Question 26

What are the critiques of Philipson’s view?

Answer 26

• overlooks positive aspects of ageing > functionalist argue retirement can benefit individuals and society as their withdrawal from work allows younger generation to take on roles (social stability)
• assumes all elderly people are oppressed by capitalism, ignores class, gender ethnicity

Question 27

How are the old viewed in post modern society?

Answer 27

• postmodern society believes society experiences a ‘pick & mix’ culture when deciding what suits their lifestyle choices
• Hunt> means we can choose a lifestyle & identity regardless of age
• in PM society, certain social trends such as late marriages & early retirement have blurred the boundaries between life stages

Question 28

As a result of the postmodern viewpoint, how do the old form their identities?

Answer 28

• pm society regards consumption as the main basis of ones identity
• individuals are thus defined by what they consume
• gives rise to the old becoming consumers of ‘body maintenance’ or ‘rejuvenation products’ which allows them to create their identities

Question 29

What changes in society may lead to the improvement in the position of the old?

Answer 29

• certain policies
• Hirsch points out that financial policies & housing policies can better the position of the old
• e.g. housing policies that encourage elderly people to ‘trade-down’ their housing which can help better their lifestyles > able to release wealth so can help better their day to day material circumstances
• increasing pension age may help them feel less dependent on the working population> no longer feel like a burden to society

Question 30

What are the criticisms of Hunts view?

Answer 30

• Hunt overemphasises individual agency while neglecting structural inequalities that shape the experiences of old age e.g. w/c may lack financial resources to participate in consumer culture
• too much emphasis on autonomy

Question 31

What changes in society may lead to the improvement in the position of the old?

Answer 31

• certain policies
• Hirsch points out that financial policies & housing policies can better the position of the old
• e.g. housing policies that encourage elderly people to ‘trade-down’ their housing which can help better their lifestyles > able to release wealth so can help better their day to day material circumstances & free up housing
• increasing pension age may help them feel less dependent on the working population> no longer feel like a burden to society