demography Flashcards
define demography
the study of populations and their characteristics
define immigration
how many people enter the country from elsewhere
define emigration
how many people leave the country to live elsewhere
until the 1980s, uk population growth was largely the product of what?
natural change
since the 1980s where has most of the UKs population growth come from?
net migration
what factors cause a population increase?
increase births
increase immigration
what factors cause population decrease?
increase death rate
increase emigration
define birth rate
the number of live births per thousand of the population per year
what has the long term trend of births been since the 1900s?
decline
how many baby booms were there in the 20th century? and when were they?
3 baby booms
the first two came after the world wars
the third was in the 1960s
what factors determine the birth rate?
- the proportion of women who are of childbearing age
- how fertile they are (how many kids they have)
what is the total fertility rate (TFR)?
the average number of children women will have during their fertile years
describe the UKs TFR trend
all time low of 1.63 children per woman in 2001
rose to 1.83 by 2014
still lower than the peak of 2.95 children in 1964 (baby boom period)
what do the changes in fertility and birth rates reflect?
- more women are remaining childless than in the past
- women are postponing having children
what factors explain the long term decline in birth rate since 1900?
- changes in women’s position
- decline in infant mortality rate
- children are now an economic liability
- child centredness
Describe what major changes were made in the position of women during the 20th Century
- Legal Equality with men
- increased educational opportunities with men
- More women in paid employment
- Easier access to divorce
- Access to contraseption and abortion
reason for decline in birth rate - change in womens position
Which sociologist claimed the education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth and fertility rates?
Sarah Harper (2012)
reason for decline in birth rate - change in womens position
What did Sarah Harper (2012) claim?
the education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth and fertility rates
reason for decline in birth rate - change in womens position
Why did Sarah Harper claim that the education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth and fertility rates?
It has led to a change in mindset among women
reason for decline in birth rate - change in womens position
According to Sarah Harper - Explain how the education of women and therefore a changed mindset impacts BR and fertility rates
- More educated women do more family planning
- See other possibilities other than trad family wife
- Delaying or opting out of child bearing to pursue a career
reason for decline in birth rate - change in womens position
Provide evidence for Sarah Harpers claim
in 2019 almost one in five women aged 45 was childless
reason for decline in birth rate - change in womens position
Complete the sentence:
Harper also notes that once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than one generation…
- Cultural norms about family size change
- Smaller families become more acceptable
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
What is the Infant Mortaity Rate (IMR)?
- measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday,
- per thousand babies born allive per year
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
What does Harper argue that a fall in the IMR leads to?
a fall in the birth rate
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Why does Harper argue that a fall in the IMR leads to a fall in the birth rate?
because if many infants die, parents have more children to replace those they have lost
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Complete the stats about IMR:
a) in the 1900s the IMR for the uk was ____
b) in other words, ____% of babies died within their first year
a) 54
b) 15%
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
In 2021, which country had the highest estimated IMR?
And what was it?
- Afghanistan
- 110
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
What reasons contributed to the fall of the UK’s in the first half of the 20th century?
- improved housing and better sanitation
- better nutrition
- better knowledge of hygiene
- fall in number of married women working
- improved services for mothers and children
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Explain improved housing and sanitation as a factor that may have contributed to falling IMR
Reasons contributing to the fall in the UK’s IMR in C20
Eg. flush toilets and cleaning water
reduced infectious disease
- Infants are much more susceptible to infection because of their less developed immune systems
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Explain better nutrition as a factor that may have contributed to falling IMR
Reasons contributing to the fall in the UK’s IMR in C20
Including that of mothers - improved maternal and infant health
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Explain better knowledge of hygine as a factor that may have contributed to falling IMR
Reasons contributing to the fall in the UK’s IMR in C20
child health and welfare often spread via womens magazines
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Explain falling numbers of married women in work as a factor that may have contributed to falling IMR
Reasons contributing to the fall in the UK’s IMR in C20
may have improved their health or that of their babies
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Explain improved services for mothers and children as a factor which may have contributed to falling IMR
Reasons contributing to the fall in the UK’s IMR in C20
eg. antenatal or post natal clinics
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Before the 20th century how did the medical profession indirectly impact the IMR?
Through its campaigns to improve public health measures
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
What time period did medical factors begin to play a greater role in the IMR?
1950s
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Explain the role medical factors played in influencing and lowering the IMR from the 1950s
- Eg. Mass immunisation against childhood diseases such as whooping cough, diphtheria and later measles
- the use of antibiotics to fight infection,
- and improved midwifery,
- and obstetric techniques
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
Explain what happened to the IMR as a result of the development in medical factors from the 1950s
- by 1950 the UK IMR had fallen to 30
- and by 2012 it stood at four barely
- 1/40 of its 1900 figure
reason for decline in birth rate - decline in infant mortality rate
What do Brass and Kabir (1978) argue?
The trend to smaller families began not in rural areas, where IMR first began to fall, but in urban areas, where IMR remained higher for longer
reason for decline in birth rate - children are now an econ liability
Up until which point were children economic assets to their parents?
The late 19th century
reason for decline in birth rate - children are now an econ liability
How were children economic assets to their parents until the late 19th century?
They could be sent out to work from an early age to earn an income
reason for decline in birth rate - children are now an econ liability
What financial pressures have made parents now feel less able or willing then in the past to have a large family
Laws And changing norms
reason for decline in birth rate - children are now an econ liability
How have laws meant that parents feel now less able to or willing that in the past to have a large family?
- Banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling, and raising the school leave age
- meant that children remain economically dependent on their parents for longer and longer
reason for decline in birth rate - children are now an econ liability
How have changing norms meant that parents feel now less able to or willing that in the past to have a large family?
- About what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms
- mean that the cost of bringing up children has risen
reason for decline in birth rate - child centredness
What does the increasing child centredness of both the family and of society as a whole mean?
Childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individuals life
reason for decline in birth rate - child centredness
What does increasing child centredness mean in terms of family size?
This is encouraged a shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’
reason for decline in birth rate - child centredness
What does the shift in family size from quantity to quality mean?
Parents now have few children and lavish more attention and resources on these few
reason for decline in birth rate - Child Centredness
when has there been a slight increase in birth since?
Future trends in BR
2001
reason for decline in birth rate - Child Centredness
What reason can be provided as an explanation for the slight increase in births since 2001?
Future trends in BR
Increase in immigration
reason for decline in birth rate - Child Centredness
How can increased immigration provide an explanation for the slight increase in birth since 2001?
Future trends in BR
On average mothers from outside of the UK have a higher fertility rate than those born in the UK
reason for decline in birth rate - Child Centredness
What statistics reinforce the argument that immigration provides a reason for the slight increase in birth since 2001?
Future trends in BR
Babies born to mothers outside the UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011
reason for decline in birth rate - Child Centredness
What statistic could evaluate the argument that immigration is an explanation for the slight increase in birth since 2001?
Future trends in BR
The office of national statistics projects for the period up to 2041 that they expect the annual number of birth to be fairly constant at around 800,000 per year
Effects of changes in fertility
What aspects of society are affected by change in the number of babies born?
- The family
- the dependency ratio
- and public services and policies
Effects of changes in fertility - The Family
How do changes in fertility affect the family?
Smaller family means that women are more likely to be free to go out to work thus creating a dual earner couple - typical of many professional families
Effects of changes in fertility - The Family
Evaluate changes in fertility affecting the family
- Family size is only one factor
- for example better of couples may be able to have larger families and still afford childcare that allows them both to work full-time
Effects of changes in fertility - The dependency ratio
Define the dependency ratio
The relationship between the size of the working or productive part of the population and the size of the nonworking or dependent part of the population
Effects of changes in fertility - The dependency ratio
What must support the dependent population?
The earnings, savings and taxes of the working population
Effects of changes in fertility - The dependency ratio
what demographic make up a large part of the dependent population?
Children
Effects of changes in fertility - The dependency ratio
What is the effect on the dependency ratio of a fall in the number of children?
Reduces the ‘burden of dependency’ on the working population
Effects of changes in fertility - The dependency ratio
What is the long-term impact of fewer babies being born?
evaluation for the fall in children reducing the ‘burden of dependency’
Very young adults and a smaller working population and so the burden of dependency may begin to increase again
Effects of changes in fertility - The dependency ratio
What is the result of falling fertility rates on childhood?
Vanishing children
- Childhood may become lonely as fewer children will have siblings
- more childless adults may mean fewer voices speaking up in support of children’s interest
- however a few children could mean they will come to be more valued
Effects of changes in fertility - Public services and policies
What are some of the consequences for public services of a lower birth rate?
For example, fewer schools and maternity and child health services may be needed
Effects of changes in fertility - Public services and policies
What may lower birth rate affect?
The cost of maternity and paternity leave and the types of housing that need to be built
Effects of changes in fertility - Public services and policies
Explain why many of the consequences of public services are in fact political decisions
For example, instead of reducing the number of schools, the government could decide to have smaller class sizes
Effects of changes in fertility - Public services and policies
What is an ageing population?
There are more old people relative to young people
What is the death rate?
The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year
What was the death rate in 1900?
19
What was the death rate by 2012?
8.9
When did the death rate begin falling?
From about 1870 and continue to do so until 1930
At what period did the death rate rise slightly?
The 1930s and 1940s the period of the great economic depression followed by World War II
Following the slight increase in the death rate in the 1930s and 40s when did the death rate begin to decline slightly again?
The 1950s
What are the reasons for the decline in the death rate?
- Improve nutrition
- medical improvements
- smoking and diet
- public health measures
- other social changes
According to Tranter (1996) what was the reason for over 3/4 of the decline in death rates from about 1850 to 1970?
Due to a fall, the number of deaths from infectious diseases such as diphtheria, measles, smallpox, typhoid and above all tuberculosis (TB)
Deaths from infectious diseases were Most common in the young
Among which demographics would deaths from infectious disease diseases most common?
The young
Where did Tranter (1996) note that the most of the decline in death rate occurred?
Among infants children and young adult adults
What replaced infectious diseases as the main cause of death by the 1950s?
- So-called ‘diseases of affluence’ (wealth)
- such as heart disease and cancers
Reasons for decline in DR - improved nutrition
Which sociologist argues that improve nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction death rates and was particularly important in reducing the number of death rate from TB?
Thomas McKeown (1972)
Reasons for decline in DR - improved nutrition
What did Thomas McKeown (1972) argue?
- Up to half the reduction in death rates
- and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths from tuberculosis
Reasons for decline in DR - improved nutrition
What does Thomas McKeown not explain?
Eval
- Why females who receive a smaller share of the family food play lived longer than males
- why death from some infectious disease diseases such as measles and infant diarrhoea actually rose at the time of improving nutrition?
Reasons for decline in DR - Medical Improvements
What advances after the 1950s helped to reduce the death rate?
- The instruction of antibiotics
- immunisation blood transfusion
- improve maternity services
- the setting up of the national health service in 1948
Reasons for decline in DR - Medical Improvements
When was the national health service set up?
1948
Reasons for decline in DR - Medical Improvements
More recently, what medical advances have helped to reduce the death rate by one third?
- eg. Improved medication
- bypass surgery
- and other developments
Reasons for decline in DR - Smoking and diet
What does Harper argue the greatest fall of death rates in recent decades has come from?
A reduction in the number of people smoking
Reasons for decline in DR - Smoking and diet
What lifestyle epidemic has replaced smoking in the 21st-century?
Obesity
Reasons for decline in DR - Smoking and diet
What has kept death from obesity low even though obesity has increased dramatically?
Drug therapies
Reasons for decline in DR - Smoking and diet
What does harper suggest we may be moving to?
An ‘American’ health culture
Reasons for decline in DR - Smoking and diet
According to Harper, what is an ‘American’ health culture?
One where life cells are unhealthy but wear a long lifespan is achieved by use of costly medication
Reasons for decline in DR - Public health measures
In the 20th century, what has led to a range of improvements in public health and the quality of the environment?
More effective central and local government with the necessary power to pass and enforce laws
Reasons for decline in DR - Public health measures
What laws and public health measures have led to a range of improvements in public health?
- Improvements and housing
- pure drinking water
- laws to combat the adulteration of food and drink the
- pasteurisation of milk
- and improved sewage methods
Reasons for decline in DR - Public health measures
Which act reduced air pollution?
The Clean Air Acts
Reasons for decline in DR - Public health measures
What impact did the Clean Air Acts have on public health?
- Reduce air pollution
- such as the smog that led to 4000 deaths in five days in 1952
Reasons for decline in DR - Public health measures
When were the clean air acts?
1956 and 1968
Reasons for decline in DR - Public health measures
Outline what the clean air acts did
banned black smoke emissions, and pushed for – and incentivised – residents and factory operators to convert to using smokeless fuels, and later to North Sea gas.
Reasons for decline in DR - Other social changes
What are the social changes played a part in reducing the death rate during the 20th century?
- The decline of dangerous manual occupations such as mining
- smaller families reduce the rate of transmission of infection
- greater public knowledge of the cause of illness
- lifestyle changes, especially the reduction in the number of men who smoke
- higher incomes allowing for a healthier lifestyle
What is life expectancy?
How long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live
What does falling death rates mean for life expectancy?
It has increased
Compare the life expectancy of males born in England in the 1900s and in 2013
- 1900s: 50
- 2013: 90.7 years
Compare the life expectancy of females born in England in the 1900s and in 2013
1900: 57
2013: 94
Describe the increase of life expectancy over the past two centuries
It has increased by about two years per decade
What was one reason for the low average life expectancy in 1900?
So many infants and children did not survive beyond the early years of life
Give an example to put the improvement in life expectancy into perspective
A newborn baby today has a better chance of reaching at 65th birthday
than a baby born in 1900 had a reaching its first birthday
What does Harper predict that we will soon achieve if the trend to greater longevity (long lifespan) continues?
Radical longevity
with many centenarians
What are centenarians?
People aged over 100
Compare the amount of centenarians currently in the UK with the estimated projection by 2100
Currently: roughly 10,000
2100: 1 million
What important gender differences must be considered when looking at the reduction and death rate and the increase in life expectancy over the last hundred years?
- Women generally live longer than men,
- although the gap has narrowed due to changes in employment and lifestyle (such as more women smoking)
What important regional differences must be considered when looking at the reduction and death rate and the increase in life expectancy over the last hundred years?
Those living in the North and Scotland have lower life expectancy than those in the south
What important class differences must be considered when looking at the reduction and death rate and the increase in life expectancy over the last hundred years?
Working class men and unskilled or routine jobs are nearly 3 times is likely to die before they are 65 compared with men in managerial or professional jobs
Which sociologist investigated differences in wealth of areas in relation to death rate and life expectancy.
Walker (2011)
What did Walker find when investigating the differences between life expectancy and death rates in the poorest and richest areas of England?
Those living in the poorest areas of England on average seven years earlier than those in the richest areas
Which sociologist investigated life expectancy between disability free and those with disabilities?
Walk 2011
What did Walker find the average difference in life expectancy is among disability free and those with disabilities?
17 years
Describe the average age of the UK’s population in 1971 2013 and 2037
1971: 34.1 years
2013: 40.3 years
2037: 42.8 years
Complete the stat:
The number of…
a) ____ or over
b) equalled the number of under ____
c) for the fiirst time ever in ____
a) 65
b) 15s
c) 2014
In what way can the changing age profile of the poulation be illustrated?
age pyramids
What do age pyramids show?
- how older age groups are growing as a proportion of the population,
- while younger groups are shrinking.
Which sociologist investigates the traditional age pyramid?
Donald Hirsch (2005)
What does Donald Hirsch (2005) note about the tradition age ‘pyramid’?
its disappearing and being replaced by more or less equal sized ‘blocks’
What example does Donald Hirsch (2005) give to back his investigation of the traditional age pyramid becoming more equal?
By 2041 there will be as many 78 year old than 5 year olds
Which three factors cause the ageing of the population?
- Increasing life expectancy
- Declining infant mortality
- Declining fertility
How does increasing life expectancy cause an ageing population?
People are living longer into old age
How does declining infant mortality cause an ageing population?
so that nowadays hardly anyone dies in early life
How does declining fertility cause an ageing population?
Fewer young people are being born in relation to the number of old people in the population
What are the effects of an ageing population?
- Public services
- One-person pensioner households
- The Dependency ratio
- Ageism
Effects of an ageing pop - Public Services
What demographic consumes a larger proportion of services?
Older people
Effects of an ageing pop - Public Services
What type of services do older people consume a larger proportion of?
eg. health and social care
Effects of an ageing pop - Public Services
what age are the ‘old old’?
75+
Effects of an ageing pop - Public Services
What age are the ‘young old’?
65 - 74
Effects of an ageing pop - Public Services
What must we be aware of when considering an ageing population?
Over generalising, since many people remain in relatively good health well into old age
Effects of an ageing pop - Public Services
In addition to increased expenditure on health care, what types of policies may an ageing population lead to changes in?
provision of housing, transport or other services
Effects of an ageing pop - One-person pensioner households
What has the number of pensioners living alone increased to?
- 12.5% or 1/8 of all households
Effects of an ageing pop - One-person pensioner households
What gender dominates the number of one-person pensioner households?
Females
Effects of an ageing pop - One-person pensioner households
Why are most one-person pensioner households female?
- Women live longer than men
- They are usually younger than their husbands
Effects of an ageing pop - One-person pensioner households
Complete the sentence:
Among the over 75s…
There are twice as many women as men
Effects of an ageing pop - One-person pensioner households
What is the phrase used to describe the fact that among the over 75s there are twice as many women as men?
the feminsisation of later life
Effects of an ageing pop - The dependency ratio
What happens as the number of retired people rises?
This increases the dependency ration and the burden on the working population
Effects of an ageing pop - The dependency ratio
What was the dependency ratio in in 2015?
3.2 - people of working age for every one pensioner
Effects of an ageing pop - The dependency ratio
What is the dependency ratio predicted to fall to by 2033?
2.8 - working people for every one pensioner
Effects of an ageing pop - The dependency ratio
Evaluate the dependency ratio
Eval
- It would be wrong to assume that ‘old’ necessarily equals ‘economically dependent’
- Its offset by a declining number of dependent children
Effects of an ageing pop - The dependency ratio
Why would it be wrong to assume that ‘old’ necessarily equals ‘economically dependent’?
Eval
Eg. the age which peple can draw their pension is rising
- From 2020 - 66
- From 2026 - 67
- From 2028 - 68
Consequence of an ageing pop - Ageism
What is the consequence of an ageing population in modern society?
The growth of ageism
Consequence of an ageing pop - Ageism
What is agesim?
The negative stereotyping and unequak treatement of people on the basis of age
Consequence of an ageing pop - Ageism
In what ways can agesim towards older people be shown?
Eg. Discrimination in employment and unequal treatment in health care.
Much of the discourse about olde age has been constructed as a problem
What is discourse?
Way of speaking and thinking
Modern society and old age
What do many sociologisys argue that ageism is the result of?
‘Structured dependency’
Modern society and old age
Describe what structured dependency is
The old are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families or the state
Modern society and old age
What are peoples identities and status largely determined by in modern society?
By their role in production
Modern society and old age
What happens to those excluded from production in modern society?
eg by compulsary retirement
they gain a dependent status and a stigmatised identity
Modern society and old age
Which Marxist looks into structured dependency?
Phillipson (1982)
Modern society and old age
What does Marxist, Phillipson (1982) argue?
The old are of no use to capitalism because they are no longer productive
Modern society and old age
What does Marxist, Phillipson claim happens as a result of old people having no use in a capitalist system?
- The state is unwilling to support them adequately
- so the family, especially female relatives, often have to take responsibility for their care
Modern society and old age
What is life structured into, in modern society?
A fixed series of life stages
Modern society and old age
In what way does age become important due to the structure of life in modern society?
In role allocation, creating fixed life stages and age related identities such as worker or pensioner
Modern society and old age
What happens to the old when they are excluded from the labour force?
They are made dependent and powerless
Postmodern society and old age
What do postmodern sociologists argue has happened to the fixed, orderly stages of the life course?
They have been broken down
Postmodern society and old age
Give examples of trends which begin to blur the boundaries between the life stages?
children dressing in adult styles, later marriage, early retirement
Postmodern society and old age
What becomes the key to our identities in postmodern society rather than production?
Consumption
Postmodern society and old age
Which sociologist looks into post modern society and our roll as units of cosumption?
Hunt (2005)
Postmodern society and old age
What does Hunt argue about what it means that we have shifted to consumption as the key to our identities?
This means we can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of our age
- age no loger determines who we are or how we live
Postmodern society and old age
What happens as a result of the shift to consumption as a key factor of peoples identity in post modern society?
- the old become a market for ‘body maintenance’ or ‘rejuvenation’ goods and services
- through which they can create their identities
Postmodern society and old age
What types of goods or services are included in the ‘body maintenance’ or ‘rejuvination’ market?
Cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, gym memberships and anti-ageing products
Postmodern society and old age
What features of post modern society other than becoming units of consumption, also undermine old age as a stigmatised life stage?
- The centrality of the media
- The emphasis on surface features
Postmodern society and old age
How does the centrality of the media undermine old age as a stigmatised life stage?
Media images now portray positive aspects of lifestykes of the elderly
Postmodern society and old age
How does the emphasis on surface features undermine old age as a stigmatised life stage?
- The body becomes a surface on which we can write identities
- Anti-ageingn products enable the old to write different identities for themselves
Inequality among the old
What does Pilcher (1995) argue about inequalities among the old?
Inequalities such as class and gender remain important
- Many of these are related to the individuals previous occupational position
Inequality among the old
Which sociologist looks into Inequality among the old?
Pilcher (1995)
Inequality among the old
Explain class inequalities among the old
- MC better occupational pensions + greater savings from higher salaries
- Poorer old people have a shorter life expectancy and suffer more infirmity - makes it harder to maintain a youthfuk self-identity
Inequality among the old
Explain gender Inequality among the old
- Womens lower earnings and career breaks as carers = lower pensions
- Women - subject to sexist as well as ageist stereotyping eg “old hag”
What factor, in addition to natural change, affects the size and age of the population?
Migration
Migration
What is migration?
Refers to the movement of people from place to place
Migration
What can migration be?
internal, within a society, or international
Migration
Define immigration
movement into a society
Migration
Define emigration
Movement out
Migration
What is net migration?
The difference between the numbers of immigrants and the number of emigrants
Migration
What is net migration expressed as?
a net increase, or a net decrease due to migration
Migration
Describe migration in the UK in the 20th century - pre 1980s
Fewer immigrants than emigrants
Migration
What were the largest immigrant groups from 1900 until the WW2?
- Irish - mainly economic reasons,
- Eastern and Central European Jews - fleeing prosecution,
- and people of British descent from Canada and the USA
Migration
Describe migration patterns in the 1950s
Black immigrantst from the Caribbean began to arrive
Migration
Describe migration patterns in the 1960s and 1970s
- South Asian immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka
- And East Africans from Kenya and Uganda
Migration
What is a consequence of migration?
A more ethnically diverese society
Migration
What % of the population did ethnic minority groups account for by 2011?
14%
Migration
What did the 2021 govenment census find about the % of the population accounted by BAME groups?
18% of people belong to BAME groups
Migration
What is one result of a more ethnically diverse society?
a greater diversity of family patterns
Migration
What did a series of immigration and nationality acts from 1962 to 1990 place severe restrictions on?
non-white immigration
