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Families and Households > Demography > Flashcards

Demography Flashcards

1
Q

What are the characteristics of demography?

A

-Size, Age structure, Births, Deaths, Immigration, Emigration

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2
Q

How has the population changed from 1901 to now? Estimate for 2031?

A

1901: 37m
1980s: most growth from net migration (more imm than emi)
Now:Approx 65ml

2031: 71m

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3
Q

What are birth rates? describe trends since 1900?

A

: Number or live births/ 1000 of the pop per year (prop of W childbearing & how fertile W are determine BR)
-Been a LT decline from 1900 to 2014 (29-12)
-However been fluctuations, 2 baby booms after WW2, one in 1960s.

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4
Q

What is total fertility rate

A

:The average number of children women will have in fertile years.
-Has risen in recent years, but still much lower than in past.
-All time low 1.6(2001) - 1.8(2014). Peak = 2.95 (in 1960s baby boom)

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5
Q

What do these changes in fertility and birth rate reflect?

A

-More W are remaining childless than in past
-W are postponing having children, av age now 30. Fertility (how many kids they have) for 30/40yr olds increasing, but can produce less.

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6
Q

What are the reasons for the decline in birth rate since 1900?

A

-Changes in W position
-Decline in IMF
-Children now economic liabilities
-Child centredness
-Future trends in birth rates

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7
Q

Explain changes in W position as factor

A

Been major changes in the 20th century :
-Legal Equality, Increased edu opp, More W in paid employment, Attitude changes to family life & W roles, easier divorce, control over fertility (abortion & contraception)

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8
Q

Harper

A

-Edu of W most important reason for the LT fall in BR &FR
-Led to a change in mindset, so fewer children, more likely to family plan, new opportunities that aren’t trad housewife/mother, so delay childbearing or not at all to pursue a career(2012:1in5 45 yr olds childless)
-also one pattern of low fertility passes down a gen, becomes the norm

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9
Q

What is infant mortality rate? declined?

A

: number of infants that die before first birthday/1000 born per year
-1900: IMR= over 15% died. Now about 4.

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10
Q

Why has IMR fallen?

A

-Improved housing/sanitation. eg clean water, reduced infections
-Better nutrition
-Knowledge of hygiene, child health -magazines/internet (from 1950s medical factors played greater role eg mass immunisations, measles)
-Fall in married W may = better health for them & babies
-Improved services eg postnatal clinics

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11
Q

Explain children as an economic liability

A

-Until 19th century we’re economic assets- worked, earn income
-Now Laws banning child labour, compulsory schooling/ leaving age leaves them dependant for longer
-Changing norms, abt what children have a right to expect in term of material needs increases cost if children.
-As a result of the financial pressure some may be less willing to have lots

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12
Q

Explain child centredness

A

-Both the family and society, means childhoods now socially constructed and a unique period in our lives.
-Encouraged shift from quantity to quality for family size- can lavish more attention and resources on fewer children

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13
Q

Explain future trends in birth rates

A

-One reason for the slight increase since 2001 is due to immigration.
-As on average mothers from outside UK have a high FR, they accounted for 25% of UK births in 2011.
-However estimate for 2041 expects annual number of births to stay fairly constant around 800,000 per year

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14
Q

What are the effects of changes in fertility

A

Changes in number of babies born effects:
-The family
-The dependency ratio
-Public services and policies

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15
Q

How does fertility changes affect the family?

A

-Smaller fams mean W are more likely free to go out to work- creating the dual earner couple (typical of many professional families)
-But fam size only one factor, better off couples may be able to afford larger families- and still pay for childcare to keep working FT.

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16
Q

How does fertility affect the dependency ratio.

A

:the relationship between size of productive and dependent population
-Earnings, taxes ect of PP support the DP- children large part, so a fall in n.o children reduces the ‘burdened of dependency’
-However, in LT fewer babies born= fewer young adults= smaller working pop= burden of dependency may increase again
-Vanishing Children: lonelier experience of childhood, fewer voices speaking for children’s interests (On other hand may be more valued)

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17
Q

How does fertility affect public services & policies

A

-A lower BR has consequences for public services eg, fewer schools, child health services may be needed. Costs of maternity/paternity leave. Type of housing needed.
-However, many of these are political decisions eg smaller schl or classes
-An ageing pop: Fewer babies= increased av age as there are more old people relative to young. Has a number of important effects

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18
Q

What is death rate?

A

-number of deaths/1000 of pop per year
-1900: 19 (rose slightly in 30s&40s due to economic depression/ WW2)
-2012: more than halved

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19
Q

What are the reasons for the decline in DR?

A

-Improved nutrition
-Medical improvements
-Smoking and diet
-Public health measures
-Other social changes

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20
Q

Tranter

A

-Argues over 3/4 of the decline in DR due to fall in deaths from infectious diseases eg measles, smallpox, tuberculosis ect.
-These we’re most common among infants, children & young adults (now may be a more natural resistance or now less powerful)
-By 1950s: infectious diseases replaced by ‘diseases of affluent’- heart disease, cancers affecting for middle age & old more

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21
Q

McKeown (improved nutrition-DR)

A

-Improved nutrition accounts for up to 1/2 the decrease in DR esp from tuberculosis.
-Increased resistance to infection, increased survival chances of infected
❌Doesn’t explain why W (who have smaller share of food) live longer.
❌ fails to explain why some infections rose at a time of better nutrition

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22
Q

Explain medical improvements (DR)

A

-Before 1950s: medical improvements played almost no part in reduction of deaths from infectious disease
-After: knowledge, techniques ect improved. Eg antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfers, maternity services, NHS (1948)
-Recently: developments have reduced heart disease deaths by 1/3

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23
Q

Harper (smoking & diet-DR)

A

-Greatest fall in DR simply due to less ppl smoking.
-However in 21st cen obesities replaced it as the new lifestyle epidemic (1/4 of uk obese in 2012)
-Despite this, obesity deaths low due to drug therapies (Harper: moving towards an American health culture, unhealthy but live long w medication)

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24
Q

Public health measures (DR)

A

-More effective central/local Gov have enforced laws & led to a range of improvements in public health & quality of env
-Eg housing improvements (drier/less crowded), purer drinking water, adulteration of food & drink laws, pasteurisation of milk, improved sewage disposal methods.
-Clean air act- reduced air pollution

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25
Q

What other social changes have helped reduce DR?

A

-Decline of dangerous manual occupations eg mining
-Smaller families- reduces rate of infection transfer
-Greater public knowledge of causes of illness
-Lifestyle changes, esp reduction in men smoking
-Higher incomes, afford healthier lifestyles

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26
Q

What is life expectancy

A

:How long, on average a person from a given year can expect to live
1900: M= 50, W=57
2013:M=90.7, W=94
-has increased due to lower infant mortality. Ie baby born today has better chance of reaching 65 than in 1900 reaching its 1st.
(predicted radical longevity-more centenarians in population)

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27
Q

What are the class, gender and regional differences that impact DR and life expectancy

A

-W generally live longer, although narrowed due to lifestyle changes
-North&Scotland lower life expectancy than South, wc men in unskilled jobs 3x as likely to die before 65 than professionals
-Poorest ares in England die on average 7 years earlier than richest (Walker)

28
Q

How has the ageing population changed?

A

-It’s rising in the UK.
1971: 34
2013: 40

29
Q

What are the 3 factors causing an ageing population

A

-Increasing life expectancy
-Declining Infant Mortality
-Declining fertility

30
Q

What are the effects of an ageing population

A

-Public services: old consume more services eg health/social care. esp ‘old old’ (65-74). But mustn’t over generalise. Policy changes eg housing, travel
-One person pensioner households increased: now 1in8, most female, also a ‘feminisation of later life’- 2x as many W 75+ than men
-Dependency Ratio: economically dependent, increased burden on PP. But rising age of pensions rising & less children are dependent (offsets)

31
Q

What is a consequence of the ageing population

A

Ageism, in modern society: the negative stereotyping & unequal treatment of ppl based on their age.
-Towards old: eg discrimination in employment, unequal heath care treatment, much of the discourse abt old is considered a ‘problem’

32
Q

Modern Society and old age

A

Many argue ageisms the result of ‘structured dependency’.
-Old largely excluded from paid work as in ModernS life’s fixed into a series of stages eg childhood, pensioners ect = dependent on family/state
-In modern society where our identities are largely determined by role in production. Old = dependant status & stigmatised.

33
Q

Phillipson

A

-(M approach) Old no longer of any use to capitalism, not productive.
-As a result, the states unwilling to adequately support the, so family takes responsibility for their care esp female relatives.

34
Q

Postmodern society and old age

A

-Argues the fixed, orderly stages of life have broken down.eg children dressing in adult styles, later marriage, early retirement. (greater choice)
-Unlike in ModS, consumptions key to our identities not production. Can define ourself by what we consume eg age no longer determines it
-As a result, old are a new market for body maintenance/ rejuvenation goods eg cosmetic surgery, excersise equipment, anti-ageing products.

35
Q

What two other features of PM society undermine old age as a stigmatised stage life stage.

A

-Centrality of the media: now portrays positive aspects of elderly lifestyles
-Emphasise on surface features: The body becomes a surface which we can write identities. Anti-ageing products mean old can change identities

36
Q

Pilcher (inequality among the old)

A

-Inequalities such as class & gender remain important. Many relate to the individuals previous occupational position
-Class: Mc better pensions, savings, salaries- Wc shorter life expectancy
-Gender: Ws lower earnings/ career breaks lower pensions, also subject to sexism & ageist stereotypes ‘old hags’

37
Q

Do PM understate the importance of such inequalities?

A

-Yes, these are related to the structure of wider society & play a major role in shaping the experience of old age- often restricts the freedom of the elderly to choose an identity through their consumption.
-29% old ppl reported suffering age discrimination

38
Q

Hirsch (policy implications)

A

A number of important policies need to change to tackle these problems
-Most important: how to finance a longer period of old age. Done by paying more from savings/taxes while working/working longer.
-Housing policy needs to change to encourage older to downsize, would release wealth to improve standard of living & more housing for young
-Hirsch recognises that they also require a cultural change in attitudes towards old age. (social construct)

39
Q

What is migration, immigration, emigration, net migration

A

-The movement of people from place to place (internal/international)
Immigration:movement into a society
Emigration: movement out
Net migration: Difference between I & E, expressed as a net inc/dec
-Until 1980s there were fewer imm than em

40
Q

Describe Immigration patterns from 1900

A

1900-WW2:Largest I group= irish. mainly economic reasons
-Then Eastern&Central European Jews.Refugees fleeing persecution
-Then Ppl of British decent from Canada& Usa (v few non-white)

41
Q

Describe the contrasting immigration during the 1950s

A

1950s: Black immigrants- From caribbean arrived
1960/70s: south asians- India, Pakistan, Bangladeshi & East African Asians
-Led to a more ethnically diverse society. (2011:14% of pop)
-Also greater diversity of family patterns
BUT severe restrictions were placed on non white imm between 62-90

42
Q

What are the trends of emigration

A

-From as early as mid-16th century-1980s, Uks almost always been a net exporter of people
-1900: Emmigrants have gone to USA, Canada, Australia, NZ, South Africa

43
Q

What are the main reasons for emigration?

A

Mostly economic…
Push: economic recession, unemployment
Pull: higher wages, better opportunities abroad

-Contrasts those driven to migrate due to religious, political or racial persecution

44
Q

Impacts of migration on population structure (size)

A

Uk pop currently growing, due to
-Net migration is high: almost half non-EU citizens
-Natural increase: birth exceeding deaths (non-uk mothers higher / 25% than Uk born mothers which remains low)
-Pop would be shrinking without net migration

45
Q

Impacts of migration on Uk population structure (age)

A

-Immigration directly (generally younger ppl) and indirectly (more fertile- produce more babies) lowers the average age of the population

46
Q

Impacts of immigration on the dependancy ratio (3 effects)

A

-Imm more likely to be working age, reducing the dependency ratio. Also many older imm return to their country of origin to retire
-But, being young= more children=increases DR. but will join workforce
-Finally, longer a groups settled, closer their fertility rates comes to national average, reducing overall impact on the DR

47
Q

What is globalisation? result of?

A

-Idea barriers between societies are disappearing, people becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries
-Result of: communication systems growth, global media, global markets, fall of communism in E Europe, expansion of EU.

48
Q

What are the trends of global migration

A

-Acceleration
-Differentation
-Feminisation of migration

49
Q

What is acceleration

A

-Speeding up rate of migration
-Eg 2000-2013: international migration increase by 33%.

50
Q

How does globalisation increase the diversity of migrant types?

A

Many types: permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses, forced migrants (refugees, asylum seekers). Some legal, some not.
-Students now a major group: 2014: more chinese-born than Uk-born postgraduate students (26%-23%)

51
Q

What was immigration like in the 1990s?

A

-Most from a narrow range of former British colonies.
-Most had rights to settle. A small n.o of stable, geographically concentrated, homogenous ethnic communities

52
Q

However what does Vertovec describe immigration since the 1990s?

A

-Since globalisation now a ‘super-diversity’ of immigration

53
Q

What is super-diversity

A

-Migrants now range from much wider range of countries, legal status (citizen, spouse), culture, religion, widely dispersed through the UK

54
Q

What does cohen describe the 3 class differences in migrants?

A

-Citizen: full rights (voting, benefits ect), now harder to get this since 70s
-Denizens: privileged, foreign nationals welcomed by state eg billionaires
-Helots: (slaves) exploited, ‘disposable units of labour power, unskilled, poorly paid eg illegal trafficking, domestic servants ect

55
Q

What is the feminisation of migration?

A

In past most were men, now almost half are female
-Globalisation of the gender division of labour, F mig are fitted int patriarchal stereotypes- careers, providers of sexual services
Eg -Global transfer of F emotional labour: mig nannies, leave own kids
-May also be sexually trafficked/slavery

56
Q

Ehrenreich and Hochschild (fem of mig)

A

-Care, domestic, sex work in western countries increasingly done by w from poor countries. Due to…
-Expansion of service occupations- demand for women
-West W joined labour force. Less able/ willing to do domestic labour
-West M remain unwilling to do domestic work
-Failure of state to provide adequate childcare

57
Q

What are hybrid identities

A

We all have multiple sources of identity: family, friends, ethnicity, religion ect- give a sense of belonging

-For migrants, country of origin provides an alternative source of identity. As a result may develop a hybrid identity eg Muslim first, then Bengali, then British. May be challenges or accused of ‘not fitting in’

58
Q

Eriksen (transnational identities)

A

-Globalisations created more diverse mig patterns. More movement through networks rather than settlement.
-So less likely see themselves belonging to a country/ culture. W Modern techs can sustain global ties without having to travel.
Ie the global economy means mig may have more links to other mig around world than in country of origin or settlement. (less likely desire assimilation)

59
Q

What is the politicisation of migration

A

-With increases global flow of mig, it’s become a political issue
-States have policies to control imm, absorb mig into society and deal w increased ethnic/ cultural diversity.
-Recently also become linked to national security & anti-terrorism policies

60
Q

What are assimilation policies?

A

-First state policy to imm. Encourages them to adopt the language, values, cuties of host culture to make them ‘like us’
-But they face the problem that transnational mig with hybrid identities may be unwilling to abandon their culture

61
Q

What is multiculturalism

A

-Accepts mig wish to retain a separate culture identity. But in practice, acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural diversity (Eriksen)

62
Q

Eriksen (shallow&deep diversity)

A

-Shallow: eg regarding chicken tikka masala Uk national dish, acceptable to state
-Deep: eg arranged marriages not acceptable to the state

63
Q

What do critics argue multicultural education policies celebrate? (when was there a move towards multiculturalism?)

A

Shallow diversity- superficial cultural differences eg samosas. Not addressing deeper problems faced by children from migrant background eg racism
-1960s

64
Q

Castles (Assmiliations policies)

A

-Argues they’re counter-productive, they mark out minority groups as culturally backward.
-Can lead to them emphasising their differences. Increases hosts suspicion of them as the ‘enemy within’
-may promote anti-terrorism’ policies that target them
-Increases marginalisation

65
Q

How can assmiliation lead to a divided working class

A

-May encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems eg unemployment
-Leads to racist scapegoating, benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided wc, prevents united action in defence of their interests

Families and Households (10 decks)

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