Demography Flashcards
Reasons for decline in birth and fertility rates
Changing position of women in society
Decline in infant mortality rate
Cost of having children
Growth of child cent-redness
Changing position of women in society
Society has undergone a gender quake and there has been the feminisation of the economy due to the decline in industry and manual jobs
There are more protections eg equal pay and sex discrimination act so women pursue employment and children later
Average first time mother is 29 (23 in the 60’s)
Since 1967 reduction in likelihood of unplanned pregnancies
Voluntary childlessness - 20% there is less stigma
Changing position of women evaluation
Many women still give up their careers to have children whilst there husbands work suggesting little has changed
There are still lots of women who have children early and lots of them
Childless women are still questioned on when they will have children
Decline in infant mortality rates
March of progress :
Until the end of the 19th century IMR were extremely high
Accidents in the workplace were common with children undertaking life risking jobs
At the end of the 19th century laws prevented children from working in dangerous jobs
Also since 1948 saw childhood vaccination programmes which reduce illness meaning more children live in to adult life
In the past people would have lots of children as an insurance policy
However as IMR is low risk , parents only have 1 or 2 children
Evaluation of decline in infant mortality rates
In the past parents didn’t have the education and knowledge about reproduction
Its very unlikely that parents actively consider the IMR
The cost of having children
March of progress
In the past children were an economic asset however following child employment laws and compulsory education , children have stopped being mini adults and have become an economic burden instead
Children expectations have increased : Pugh pester power
With the age of compulsory ed being raised in 2015 , young people are financially dependent for longer
Many parents simply cannot afford to have more children
Evaluation of the cost of having children
Those from low income families tend to have more children
There are child welfare services that families have access to so finance isn’t a major factor
Growth of child centred ness
March of progress : Cunningham
By the mid 1900’ British families have become child centred - kids are seen as vulnerable and need nurturing
In the past children were to be seen and not heard nowadays they have a voice
Parents deliberately have fewer children to ensure their children are their priority .
This allows them to pay more attention and spend more money on them
Evaluation of growth of child centred ness
It is a consequence of fewer children rather than a cause , child centred ness doesn’t influence how many children someone will have
There are practical reasons why parents have less children
Effects of lower birth rates on families and society
Smaller family sizes
Impact on the dependancy ratio
impact on policies and public services
Smaller family sizes
In the 90’ 2-3 children was the norm
Now 1-2 ism the norm
Also contributes to the formation of the beanpole family (multiple small generations alive at the same time)
Created with a combination of fewer children n/f older people living longer
Positive and negative evaluation of smaller family sizes
Positive :
financial benefit as expenses are reduced
Allows families to have close bonds
Negative :
Can be connected to loneliness as children
More pressure to support one another
Impact on the dependancy ratio
Refers to the no. of people who are in paid employment vs those who are not
Children are included in the dependent population .
Short term : lower brith rates means there are less who are dependant
Long term : fewer babies means less workers for the future
Positive and negative evaluation of impact on the dependancy ratio
Positive : in the short term fewer children means less of a burden on the independent population
Negative : less future workers so less taxes
Impact on public services
Families are entitled to child benefits
£20.7 for their eldest and £13.7 for any others
Children are legally required to stay in education to 18 which is free of charge
Healthcare programmes are targeted at children eg vaccinations
Positive and negative evaluation of the impact on public services
Positive : reduces financial burden on the family
Negative : birth rates still fluctuate and if funding is cut and birth rates rise then the quality of service will be poorer
Reasons for increased life expectancy
Improved nutrition
Public health measures
medical improvements
better lifestyles and fewer bad habits
Improved nutrition
Cultural sociologists :
People have a better awareness of healthy choices and diets
Schemes such as slimming world and change for life have lead to people having healthier diets
2005 Jamie Oliver ensured school children received healthier school meals
2018 sugar tax was introduced .
Healthier diets mean people are able to fight off diseases easier
Evaluation of improved nutrition
Our poor nutrition means some life expectancies are lower due to health conditions eg diabetes
Lost of evidence suggests nutrition is not improving eg we have one of the highest obesity rates
Medical improvements
Vaccination programmes have lead to herd immunisation against TB and measles
Major killers of the past nowadays have very little impact
Treatment has improved eg surgeries have improved massively
Diagnosis and screening has improved with scans leading to higher and earlier detections of diseases and therefore better treatments
Evaluation of medical improvements
The majority of people will go through their adult life without needing medical intervention suggesting that that is not the reason for increased life expectancy
Death rates of TB fell before mass vaccinations schemes took place
Public health measures
Non medical interventions and adjustments
1930’s slum clearance in Britain - poor quality housing was torn down and rebuilt helping reduce health issues
1956 clean air act strived to reduce respiratory illnesses for people
Over time people have acknowledged the importance of basic hand washing and hygiene which reduces the spread of diseases
100% of UK properties have access to clean water
Better understanding has resulted in a rise in the life expectancy
Evaluation of public health measures
Some diseases do require medical intervention eg measles
Public health measures alone are not enough to slow the spread of diseases
Better lifestyles and fewer bad habits
Cultural sociologist
People generally life better lifestyles today eg engage in physical activity
Change 4 life is raising awareness
Growth in national challenges such as couch to 5k offer motivation and helps build up immune systems
Decline in bad habits such as the number of smokers and alcohol consumption
Likely to reduce the chances of a premature death
Evaluation of better lifestyles and fewer bad habits
Emergence of new bad habits eg smart phone addictions which contribute to bad mental and physical health
More people own cars now so are less active
Effects of increased life expectancy on families and society (4 theories)
Impact on policies and services
increase in one person pensioner households
impact on the dependancy ratio
return of the extended family
Impact on policies and services (Longer life expectancy)
British people are entitled to a state pension and from 60 a free bus pass
Older people are also huge NHS users
Community services are often available eg home help to meals on wheels
The cost and demand is largely determined by the life expectancy and the no. of people living as part of the older generation
Positive and negative evaluation of impact on policies and services
Positive - the growth in the care sector has provided more jobs and opportunities
Negative - financial burden , these services are expensive to run
Increase in one person pensioner households
Women often outlive their spouses
48% of people over 65 currently live alone
Older people will often have experiences the empty nest process years earlier
As people live longer the time period they live alone is getting longer
Positive and negative evaluation of increase in one pensioner households
Positive - indicates improvements and health also suggests that people are living independently for longer
Negative - concerns about loneliness
Health and safety risks of the vulnerable elderly people
Impact on the dependancy ratio (increased life expectancy)
The ratio between those who work and don’t
Retired people are classed as part of the dependency population
As the elderly generation grows , the size of the dependant population does as well
Evaluation of the impact on the dependancy ratio
positive - The government keeps increasing the retiring age so the strain on the Independent population is weakened
Negative - We may see a shrink in the working population
The return of the extended family
As people live longer there has been a resurgence in the extended family
Many experience the modified extended family where connections are maintained through technology
Older people are referred to as silver surfers for their technological abilities
Also a rise in the beanpole family
Evaluation of the return of the extended family
Positive - children can form better relationships with there grandparents
negative - Pressure on some families to provide care to elderly parents eg pivot generation
Changes to old age
Marxism
Inequalities between older people
Old people suffer discrimination
Old people suffer mistreatment from public services
Marxism : changes to old age
Since the emergence of modern industrial society , older people are regarded as a burden
Structured dependancy
older people are of no productive use
They are perceived as dispensable as they are no use to society
Post modern views on changes to old age
Older people remain more economical active than in the past - jobs are less manual
Rise in individualism eg no longer expected to conform to an image based on their age
Inequalities exist between older people
Class inequalities eg wc are more likely to suffer from poor health conditions especially wc men
Gender inequalities eg feminists argue that society objectifies women and values them for their looks and older women are considered as no longer pleasing to the eye
Old people suffer discrimination
Overlooked for employment opportunities due to age
Discriminated financially eg car insurance becomes more expensive
Social discrimination - often targeted by criminals for being more vulnerable
Older people suffer mistreatment by public services
Age UK has raised concerns over treatment
Lots of elderly people have do not resuscitate orders without their consent - death isn’t always imminent
Often denied treatments such as heart surgery
Concerns about abuse in care homes
Influence on migration trends
Globalisation
push and pull factors
immigration policy and border controls
Globalisation
Growing interconnectedness between countries due to trade links , transport and communication technology
Legal migration : very common for businesses to operate around the world so people often travel for that , people with medical qualifications migrate to other countries where they are recognised.
International travel is cheaper and more accessible to a range of people
Illegal migration : trafficking gangs are in operation and transport links have made it easier to smuggle people . This is hugely risky
Evaluation of globalisation
Illegal migration rarely succeeds and most people are deported
Globalisation doesn’t give everyone the opportunity to migrate freely
Push and pull factors
Push factors - drive a person out of their country eg poverty and discrimination
Pull factors - attract a person to a country eg education and standards of living
Evaluation of push and pull factors
The UK has adopted a tough stance on immigration making it less desirable
Jobs that used to attract migrants to the UK are now available across the globe
Immigration policy and border controls
Due to Brexit , freedom of movement is limited and there is less migration
Countries can dictate what income and qualifications are needed
Strict criteria to claim asylum eg in 2019 42% of asylum claims were rejected
Evaluation of border controls
Border controls don’t always limit illegal migration
Some argue border policies have disadvantaged UK citizens to gain employments abroad eg Brexit debacle
Impact on population growth (migration)
migration contributes to population growth more than natural changes
56% of population growth in the last 30 years was due to migration
Statistically women from a migrant background have more children than British born women
Effects of migration on families and society in the UK
Impact on population growth
Impact on dependancy ratio
Cultural diversity
Evaluation of impact on population growth
Positive and negative
Positive - If its weren’t for migration the UKs population would shrink
Negative - Some argue GB is overpopulated and that there is already a lack of jobs and housing
Impact on dependency ratio (migration)
Migrants tend to be younger and want employment as soon as they arrive
Migrant families tend to be larger with more children (dependent)
Common for migrants to return home for retirement
Positive and negative evaluation of the impact on the dependency ratio
Positive - Majority of migrants are of working age so contribute with taxes which can fund the dependent population
Negative - Migrant families have mire children increasing the dependency population
Cultural diversity
Shallow diversity : superficial differences which immigration brings to the UK eg food and fashions
This is celebrated and regarded as enriching to society
Deep diversity : significant differences and norms between British born and migrants eg religious values
This is less likely to be embraced
Single parenthood is common in Black families
Asian women tend to marry younger and have more children also more likely to live in extended family units
Evaluation of cultural diversity positive and negative
Positive - cultural diversity enriches society and builds greater tolerance
negative - Can create tensions and has lead to the decline in traditional British values
Impact of migration on immigrants themselves
feminisation of migration
Migrant identities
Feminisation of migration
50/50 split on migrants
Most female migrants pursue typically feminine jobs eg nannies and beauticians often taking low paid jobs that British women don’t want to do
Dark side : women are more vulnerable to trafficking and getting sold in to prostitution
Since 2013 raids on a. number of nail bars acting as a front for prostitution
Positive and negative effects of feminisation of migration
positive - women may find more opportunities and freedom than at their home nation
Negative - female migrants are more vulnerable to exploitation
Migrant identities
3 types of identities :
Hybrid : where the individual fully embraces their host nation whilst still being proud of the country of their origin eg Brasian
Transubnational : where they do not feel part of any one country
Hierarchical : where they see one part of their national identity as more important than the rest
Evaluation pf migrant identities
Positive and negative
Positive : people can embrace new cultures as well as retaining their heritage giving them the best of both worlds
Negative : hierarchical identities can lead to conflict
Impact of migration on policy development (approaches)
Two different approaches :
Assimilation - where the government ensures that migrants integrate themselves fully in to the host country
France takes this approach with the banning of face veils
Multiculturalism- host nation embraces the culture of minority groups eg British schools are encouraged to celebrate minority festivals .
